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Does Article 23 of the Athanasian Creed teach the Filioque?

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Does Article 23 of the Athanasian Creed teach the Filioque?

Yes, Article 23 of the Athanasian Creed explicitly teaches the “filioque” doctrine.

The standard Western text of the creed (used in Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, and many other traditions) states:

“The Holy Spirit is of the Father and of the Son”; neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.”

(This corresponds to verse 23 in most numbered editions, following verses 21–22 on the Father’s unoriginated nature and the Son’s eternal begetting from the Father alone.)

Essentially, this is the same as the Filioque:

•           The phrase “of the Father and of the Son” (Latin: “a Patre et Filio”) affirms that the Holy Spirit eternally proceeds (“procedens”) from both the Father and the Son as from a single principle.

•           This mirrors the “filioque” (“and [from] the Son”) addition to the Nicene Creed, emphasizing the consubstantiality and equality of the Persons while distinguishing their relations: the Father is unoriginated, the Son is begotten from the Father alone, and the Spirit proceeds from both.

•           The creed’s structure deliberately parallels the origins: no origin for the Father, begetting for the Son (from Father only), procession for the Spirit (from Father and Son).

Historical and Theological Observations:

•           The Athanasian Creed (likely 5th–6th century, Western/Latin origin, not authored by Athanasius) is one of the earliest explicit Western statements including this double-procession language.

•           It predates or aligns with the formal insertion of “filioque” into the Nicene Creed (e.g., at Toledo in 589 AD) and reflects Western Trinitarian theology, drawing from patristic sources such as Hilary of Poitiers (De Trinitate) and Ambrose of Milan, who articulated the Spirit’s procession involving both Father and Son to safeguard against Arian subordinationism.

•           Eastern Orthodox traditions typically do not accept or use the Athanasian Creed in its standard form precisely because of this clause, viewing it as inconsistent with the Father’s sole monarchy (sole origin) of the Spirit’s eternal procession. Some Eastern Churches historically modified or rejected it for this reason. (1)

•           Western churches (including those in the Protestant Reformation) retain it as orthodox and see the wording as compatible with Scripture (e.g., John 15:26 combined with John 16:7, 20:22; Galatians 4:6) and patristic testimony, including Augustine’s De Trinitate, where the Spirit is described as the bond of love proceeding from both Father and Son, thereby affirming the perichoretic unity and co-equality of the divine Persons without introducing duality of principles.

In short, Article 23 explicitly and clearly includes the “filioque” doctrine, making the Athanasian Creed an important Western statement on the Holy Spirit’s double procession. This has been a point of agreement in the West and a source of disagreement with the East for centuries, yet it underscores the Western commitment to a robust defense of the Son’s full divinity against potential modalistic or subordinating interpretations.

1. As noted, some Eastern Churches historically modified or rejected the Athanasian Creed for teaching the double procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father. Is this the same theological issue that arose later in 1054 AD?

Indeed, the Eastern Orthodox rejection (or modification/avoidance) of the Athanasian Creed due to its explicit “filioque” language in Article 23 is fundamentally the same theological issue that fueled the accusations against Pope Leo IX (and the Western Church) around the time of the 1054 Great Schism.

The core Eastern objection in both cases is the same: the doctrine that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally “from the Father and the Son” (double procession), which they view as:

•           Contrary to the original Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (which states the Spirit “proceeds from the Father” alone, per John 15:26).

•           A distortion of Trinitarian theology by implying two origins/causes for the Spirit’s hypostatic existence (subsistence), thereby undermining the Father’s unique monarchy (sole principle or “arche” of the Godhead).

•           Potentially subordinating the Spirit or blurring the distinct personal properties of the Trinity.

On the Athanasian Creed:

•           The creed’s clause (“The Holy Spirit is of the Father and of the Son… proceeding”) directly affirms double procession.

•           Eastern Orthodox sources historically have not adopted or liturgically used the Athanasian Creed (a Western/Latin composition, never ecumenically received in the East).

•           When it appears in Eastern contexts (rarely, e.g., some historical liturgical adaptations), the “filioque” related phrase is often omitted or rejected outright, precisely because it teaches what the East sees as the same error as the “filioque” addition to the Nicene Creed.

On the 1054 Events and Pope Leo IX:

•           The mutual excommunications of 1054 (involving Pope Leo IX’s legates, led by Cardinal Humbert, and Patriarch Michael Cerularius) were triggered by multiple issues: papal supremacy claims, liturgical differences (e.g., unleavened bread), and others.

•           However, the “filioque” was a major theological point of contention. Eastern critics (e.g., from Leo of Ohrid and Cerularius) accused the West (and therefore Pope Leo’s representatives) of heresy for adding “filioque” to the Nicene Creed without approval and for endorsing the doctrine of double procession.

•           The Western legates’ bull of excommunication accused the East of omitting the “filioque” (i.e., rejecting double procession), while the East reciprocated by condemning the addition and the teaching as heretical innovations that violated conciliar authority and patristic tradition. From the Western perspective, this defense was necessary to preserve the integrity of Trinitarian doctrine against perceived Eastern tendencies toward a hierarchical subordination that could diminish the Son’s role in the immanent Trinity.

In essence, the Eastern Church’s historical stance against the Athanasian Creed’s wording stems from “exactly the same Trinitarian concern” that led to accusations of error/heresy against Pope Leo IX and the Latin West in the mid-11th century: opposition to the “filioque” doctrine itself, not merely its insertion into one specific creed. This remains a key point of divergence between Eastern Orthodox and Western (Catholic/Protestant) Trinitarian theology to this day, though Western theologians maintain that the filioque enhances rather than distorts the patristic consensus by explicitly articulating the mutual indwelling (circumincessio) of the Persons.

Note: Circumincessio (also spelled circumincession or sometimes circuminsessio) is the Latin theological term for the doctrine describing the mutual indwelling, interpenetration, or reciprocal existence of the three Persons of the Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—within the one divine essence.

The doctrine of the Filioque stated:

The “filioque” (“and [from] the Son”) doctrine teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father “and” the Son as from one principle (or source) within the Trinity. This is the position held by the Western Church (Catholic, most Protestant traditions including Lutheran and Reformed, and Anglican), and it contrasts with the Eastern Orthodox view that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone (with the Son involved in a different way, often “through” the Son in the economy of salvation but not eternally as a co-principle).

Western theologians (e.g., Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and later Protestant thinkers such as John Calvin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion) draw from a pattern of scriptural texts that show a close, eternal relationship between the Son and the Spirit, the Son’s sending of the Spirit, and the Spirit’s reception from the Son. These are seen as pointing to eternal procession (the immanent Trinity) rather than merely temporal sending (the economic Trinity in salvation history), thereby ensuring that the economic revelations faithfully mirror the ontological realities of the Godhead.

Key Biblical Texts Cited in Support:

Western proponents emphasize these passages (often from the Gospel of John, where Jesus speaks extensively about the Spirit in the Upper Room Discourse):

1.         John 15:26 — “But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me.” 

•           Jesus states He will send the Spirit “from the Father,” and the Spirit “proceeds from the Father.” Proponents argue that this sending by the Son indicates a relationship that reflects eternal procession from both, especially since the verse connects the Son’s role to the Spirit’s origin. Western exegesis, following Augustine, interprets this as the Son’s active role in the spiration of the Spirit.

2.         John 16:7 — “Nevertheless, I tell you the truth: it is to your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go away, the Helper will not come to you. But if I go, I will send him to you.” 

•           Jesus explicitly promises to send the Spirit, paralleling the Father’s sending (John 14:26). This mutual sending is seen as grounded in eternal relations, with the filioque preventing any notion of the Spirit as inferior or detached from the Son’s divinity.

3.         John 16:13–15 — “When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth… He will glorify me, for he will take what is mine and declare it to you. All that the Father has is mine; therefore, I said that he will take what is mine and declare it to you.” 

•           The Spirit “takes” or “receives” from the Son what belongs to the Son (which is everything the Father has). This reception is understood as analogous to the eternal procession, since the Son fully shares in the Father’s essence, and denying the Son’s role risks implying a bifurcation in the divine unity.

4.         John 20:22 — “And when he had said this, he breathed on them and said to them, ‘Receive the Holy Spirit.’” 

•           Jesus breathes the Spirit on the disciples, echoing God’s breathing life into Adam (Genesis 2:7) and suggesting the Son imparts the Spirit in a way that reflects divine origin, paralleling the Father’s creative act and affirming the Son’s co-equal spiration.

Note: Spiration is a precise theological term in Western (Latin) Trinitarian doctrine, referring to the eternal act by which the Holy Spirit proceeds—or is “breathed forth”—as the Third Person of the Trinity.

5.         Galatians 4:6 — “And because you are sons, God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying, ‘Abba! Father!’” 

•           The Spirit is called the “Spirit of his Son,” implying an intimate relation where the Spirit belongs to or comes from the Son, which Western theology sees as evidence of eternal procession to maintain the consubstantiality against Pneumatomachian heresies.

Note: Pneumatomachian (also spelled Pneumatomachian or referring to the Pneumatomachi / Pneumatomachoi) is a term from early Christian theology designating a 4th-century heretical sect (and its adherents) that denied the full divinity of the Holy Spirit.

6.         Romans 8:9 and Philippians 1:19 — The Spirit is called the “Spirit of Christ,” reinforcing this connection.

•           Other supporting texts include the Spirit descending on the Son at baptism (Matthew 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22) and Acts 2:33 (the exalted Christ pours out the Spirit), which collectively demonstrate the Son’s indispensable role in the Spirit’s emanation, safeguarding the doctrine from any potential Sabellian modalism or Macedonian subordination.

The Western Churches argue these texts show the Spirit’s relation to the Son mirrors the Son’s relation to the Father (eternal generation), and that denying procession from the Son could undermine the full equality and consubstantiality of the Persons (against Arian-like views that subordinated the Spirit). Furthermore, patristic witnesses such as Tertullian (Adversus Praxean) and Cyril of Alexandria (in his commentaries on John) provide early intimations of double procession, which the West developed to counter emerging heresies, ensuring a balanced Trinitarianism that upholds the unity of essence while distinguishing hypostases.

Important Distinctions and Context:

•           Western theology distinguishes “eternal procession” (the Spirit’s hypostatic origin in the inner life of God) from “temporal mission/sending” (the Spirit’s work in creation and salvation). The filioque applies to eternal procession, but the biblical texts often describe mission (e.g., sending in time), which is seen as revealing the eternal reality, in line with the principle that opera Trinitatis ad extra indivisa sunt (the external works of the Trinity are undivided).

•           The original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 AD) says the Spirit “proceeds from the Father” (John 15:26 directly), without mentioning the Son. The filioque addition (gradually adopted in the West from the 6th century onward) was intended to emphasize the Spirit’s full divinity and equality against heresies, not to contradict the original, but to explicate it in light of Western linguistic and theological emphases, as affirmed by councils like the Third Council of Toledo (589 AD).

Eastern Orthodox Perspective (for Balance):

Eastern Orthodox Christians generally reject the filioque’s eternal double procession, arguing against it:

•           Contradicts the plain reading of John 15:26 (“proceeds from the Father” alone).

•           Undermines the Father’s sole monarchy (unique source/principle) in the Trinity.

•           Risks implying two causes for the Spirit or subordinating the Spirit.

They affirm that the Spirit is sent by the Son in a temporal sense and comes “through the Son” in certain patristic views, but they insist that eternal procession comes only from the Father. Modern ecumenical dialogues, such as the North American Orthodox-Catholic Consultation, have observed that expressions like “from the Father and the Son” and “from the Father through the Son” can represent complementary truths without contradiction if carefully clarified. However, from the Western standpoint, the “through the Son” formulation, while potentially reconcilable, risks diminishing the Son’s active, co-principal role in the Spirit’s hypostatic origination, potentially leaning toward a more monarchian emphasis that could obscure the full perichoresis.

Note: Perichoresis (pronounced per-ee-ko-REE-sis) is a key term in Christian Trinitarian theology that describes the mutual indwelling, interpenetration, or coinherence of the three Persons of the Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—within the one divine essence.

Is the Eastern Church’s anathema against the West for holding to the “filioque” responsible or balanced?

The strong language of heresy and anathema helped reinforce the Great Schism, but many modern theologians on both sides see it as an overreaction to a legitimate theological issue rather than a total betrayal of the faith. Nonetheless, the Western Church views such anathemas as unbalanced, given the filioque’s alignment with scriptural witness and early patristic developments, which aimed to fortify Trinitarian orthodoxy against heterodox threats prevalent in the Latin West.

The Eastern Orthodox Church’s handling of Article 23 of the Athanasian Creed—which states that “the Holy Spirit is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding”—has been marked by inconsistency and contradiction, as it grapples with language that echoes the filioque doctrine they vehemently reject as heretical and a Western innovation in the Nicene Creed. While the EO tradition generally dismisses the Athanasian Creed as a non-ecumenical, Western composition not adopted by any universal council and thus not binding, some Orthodox sources and publications, such as liturgical texts or commentaries like the St. Dunstan’s Plainsong Psalter, include it but with footnotes qualifying or effectively neutralizing the offending clause by interpreting “is of” as distinct from “proceeds from” to align with their emphasis on the Father’s sole monarchy as the source of the Spirit’s procession. This selective adaptation or omission mirrors the very creed-altering practice they condemn in the West, revealing a contradictory approach: outright rejection in most theological discourse to preserve anti-filioque purity, yet occasional modified acceptance or reinterpretation in peripheral contexts, undermining their consistent stance against any double procession and highlighting internal variances in how the clause is addressed. In contrast, the Western Church’s steadfast retention of the clause demonstrates a principled commitment to doctrinal clarity and continuity with Augustinian Trinitarianism.

In conclusion:

The “filioque” remains Christianity’s sharpest East-West division: both traditions confess one God in three co-equal Persons but differ on the Spirit’s eternal origin. The West, based on John 15:26, 16:7–15, 20:22, and Galatians 4:6, affirms that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father “and” the Son as one principle—explicit in the Athanasian Creed (Article 23) and later added to the Nicene Creed—to support the Son’s full divinity and Trinitarian unity, thereby providing a more comprehensive safeguard against subordinationist heresies and emphasizing the mutual interpenetration of the divine Persons. The East, faithful to the original Creed’s “proceeds from the Father” and the Father’s sole monarchy, rejects double procession as undermining the Father’s unique primacy, viewing it as the same error that led to the rejection of the Athanasian wording and the heresy charges against Pope Leo IX in 1054. Although centuries of division have followed, modern dialogue suggests that “from the Father and the Son” and “from the Father through the Son” may express complementary truths of the same mystery, with the Western formulation offering a stronger articulation of the Son’s eternal agency in preserving the undivided essence of the Godhead.

“The above article was generated by Grok 4 (xAI) in response to prompts from [Jack Kettler]; I have edited it with Grammarly AI for style, and using AI for the glory of God.”

“For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal but mighty in God for pulling down strongholds, casting down arguments and every high thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of God, bringing every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ.” (2 Corinthians 10:4-5)

The Shema and the Doctrine of the Trinity

Jack Kettler

Introduction

The declaration in Deuteronomy 6:4, “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one,” known as the Shema, stands as a foundational affirmation of biblical monotheism within the Jewish and Christian traditions. This verse encapsulates the uncompromising monotheistic faith of Israel, asserting the unity and uniqueness of YHWH (Yahweh) as the one true God. For Christian theology, the Shema provides a critical point of departure for articulating the doctrine of the Trinity, which affirms that the one God exists eternally as three distinct Persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—while maintaining the indivisible unity of the divine essence. This chapter explores the theological implications of Deuteronomy 6:4 in relation to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the deity of Christ, grounding the discussion in scriptural exegesis, historical theology, and epistemological considerations.

Epistemological Foundations

The doctrine of the Trinity, while rooted in divine revelation, engages complex epistemological questions concerning how humans apprehend divine truth. Christian theology traditionally distinguishes between three primary approaches to knowledge: empiricism, which privileges sensory experience; rationalism, which elevates human reason as the arbiter of truth; and scripturalism (or dogmatism), which posits that all true knowledge is derived from divine revelation, with Scripture as the ultimate authority. For Christians, the Bible serves as the presuppositional foundation for theological knowledge, providing the lens through which divine mysteries, such as the Trinity, are understood.

The incomprehensibility of God’s triune nature often prompts objections from those who demand full rational comprehension as a prerequisite for belief. However, the finite nature of human cognition limits the ability to grasp the infinite being of God exhaustively. Analogously, few fully understand the intricacies of the human brain, yet its reality is not rejected on account of partial comprehension. Similarly, the doctrine of the Trinity, though transcending human understanding, is affirmed on the basis of divine revelation rather than rationalist criteria. This approach does not imply irrationality but rather acknowledges the limitations of human reason in apprehending divine realities, prioritizing the authority of Scripture as articulated in Deuteronomy 6:4 and other passages.

The Shema: Deuteronomy 6:4

Deuteronomy 6:4, “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one,” employs the Hebrew terms YHWH (the covenant name of God) and echad (one), emphasizing the singular, unique, and indivisible nature of God. The term echad can denote both numerical oneness and a composite unity, as seen in contexts like Genesis 2:24, where man and woman become “one flesh.” Within the context of Israel’s covenantal theology, the Shema functions as a polemical declaration against the polytheism of surrounding nations, affirming YHWH’s sole deity and exclusive claim to worship.

For Christian theology, the Shema’s affirmation of divine unity undergirds the doctrine of the Trinity, which reconciles the oneness of God with the plurality of divine Persons revealed in Scripture. The doctrine does not posit three gods (tritheism) nor a single person manifesting in three modes (modalism), but rather one divine essence subsisting in three coequal, coeternal, and distinct Persons.

The Doctrine of the Trinity

The doctrine of the Trinity may be succinctly stated as follows:

1. There is one God, indivisible in essence and being.
2. This one God eternally exists as three distinct Persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, each fully and equally divine.
3. The three Persons, while distinct in their relations and operations, share the one divine essence without division or separation.

This formulation is articulated with precision in Louis Berkhof’s Systematic Theology:

1. There is one indivisible divine essence.
2. Within this essence, there are three Persons or subsistences: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
3. The whole divine essence belongs equally to each Person.
4. The Persons are distinguished by a definite order and personal attributes.
5. The distinctions among the Persons do not divide the divine essence but reflect relational distinctions within the Godhead (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 87–89).

For a more accessible definition, the Trinity can be described as one God in essence, existing eternally as three distinct Persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—each fully divine, yet sharing the same nature, power, and eternity. The Father is neither the Son nor the Spirit, the Son is neither the Father nor the Spirit, and the Spirit is neither the Father nor the Son. This doctrine avoids both modalism (one God appearing in three forms) and tritheism (three separate gods united in purpose), maintaining the monotheistic confession of Deuteronomy 6:4.

The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) provides a historic articulation:

“In the unity of the Godhead, there are three Persons, of one substance, power, and eternity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. The Father is of none, neither begotten nor proceeding; the Son is eternally begotten of the Father; the Holy Ghost eternally proceeding from the Father and the Son” (Westminster Confession, II.3).

Scriptural Foundations

The Bible consistently affirms both the unity of God and the plurality of divine Persons.

1. Monotheism and Divine Unity:

• Deuteronomy 6:4: “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one.”

• Isaiah 43:10: “Before me no god was formed, nor shall there be any after me.”

• Isaiah 44:6, 8: “I am the first and I am the last, and besides me there is no god… Is there a God besides me? There is no God; I know not any.”

• Mark 12:32: “There is one God, and there is no other but he.”

These texts unequivocally establish that there is only one God, ruling out polytheism and affirming the Shema’s monotheistic confession.

2. Plurality within the Godhead:

• Old Testament Indications: Passages such as Genesis 1:26 (“Let us make man in our image”), Genesis 3:22, Genesis 11:7, and Isaiah 6:8 suggest a plurality within the divine being. Isaiah 48:16 and 61:1–2 hint at distinctions among divine Persons, later clarified in the New Testament.

• New Testament Clarity: The New Testament explicitly reveals the three Persons of the Trinity:

• The Father: Identified as God in Romans 1:7, 1 Corinthians 1:3, and 2 Corinthians 1:2, and as YHWH (Jehovah) in Genesis 2:4, 8, and Exodus 3:13–14, where God reveals Himself as “I AM.”

• The Son: Affirmed as God in Hebrews 1:8 (“Thy throne, O God, is forever and ever”), Colossians 2:9 (“In him the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily”), and 1 John 5:20 (“This is the true God and eternal life”). Jesus identifies Himself as “I AM” (John 8:58, echoing Exodus 3:14), and Philippians 2:10 applies Isaiah 45:23’s description of YHWH to Him. Ephesians 4:8 cites Psalm 68:18, attributing YHWH’s actions to Jesus, and Revelation 2:23 parallels Jeremiah 17:10, identifying Christ with YHWH’s attributes.

• The Holy Spirit: Called God in Acts 5:3–4, where lying to the Spirit is equated with lying to God, and 1 Corinthians 3:16, where the Spirit is the indwelling presence of God. Hebrews 3:7–8 cites Psalm 95:7–8, attributing divine speech to the Spirit. The Spirit is identified as YHWH in 2 Corinthians 3:17, where Kyrios (Lord) in the Septuagint translates YHWH.

3. Trinitarian Unity in Action:

• All three Persons are involved in creation: the Father (1 Corinthians 8:6), the Son (John 1:3), and the Spirit (Job 33:4).

• All share divine attributes: omniscience (Acts 15:18; John 21:17; 1 Corinthians 2:10), omnipotence (Revelation 19:6; Matthew 28:18; Luke 1:35–37), and omnipresence (Jeremiah 23:24; Matthew 28:20; Psalm 139:7).

• All are eternal: the Father (Romans 16:26), the Son (Hebrews 13:8), and the Spirit (Hebrews 9:14).

• All indwell believers: the Father and Son (John 14:23; Ephesians 3:17) and the Spirit (John 14:17).

• All participate in Christ’s resurrection: the Father (Galatians 1:1), the Son (John 2:19–21), and the Spirit (1 Peter 3:18).

1. Trinitarian Events:

• The baptism of Jesus (Matthew 3:16–17) reveals the Father’s voice, the Son’s presence, and the Spirit’s descent.

• The Great Commission (Matthew 28:19) commands baptism “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit,” indicating a singular divine name shared by three Persons.

• Paul’s benediction (2 Corinthians 13:14) invokes the grace of Christ, the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit, affirming their unity and distinction.

The Deity of Christ

The deity of Christ is central to the Trinitarian doctrine and is robustly supported by Scripture. Jesus’ identification with YHWH is evident in His use of “I AM” (John 8:58), which provoked accusations of blasphemy from His contemporaries (John 10:30–33). The New Testament applies Old Testament YHWH texts to Christ (e.g., Philippians 2:10 citing Isaiah 45:23; Ephesians 4:8 citing Psalm 68:18). Christ’s divine attributes, such as omniscience (John 21:17), omnipotence (Matthew 28:18), and eternality (Hebrews 13:8), further confirm His deity. His role in creation (John 1:3) and resurrection (John 2:19–21) underscores His identity as fully God, coequal with the Father and Spirit.

Theological Synthesis

The doctrine of the Trinity, rooted in the monotheistic affirmation of Deuteronomy 6:4, reconciles the unity of God’s essence with the plurality of divine Persons. The Shema’s declaration of YHWH’s oneness is not contradicted but fulfilled in the revelation of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as one God in three Persons. Each Person is fully divine, sharing the same essence, yet distinguished by eternal relations: the Father is unbegotten, the Son is eternally begotten, and the Spirit eternally proceeds. This doctrine, while mysterious, is not irrational, as it rests on the authority of divine revelation rather than human comprehension.

Conclusion

Deuteronomy 6:4 serves as a cornerstone for both Jewish monotheism and Christian Trinitarian theology. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity, while acknowledging the mystery of God’s triune nature, faithfully upholds the Shema’s affirmation of divine unity while embracing the New Testament’s revelation of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as distinct yet coequal Persons. The deity of Christ, affirmed through His identification with YHWH and divine attributes, is integral to this doctrine. Grounded in Scripture and articulated through historic confessions, the Trinity remains a central tenet of Christian theology, inviting worship of the one true God revealed in three Persons.

Bibliography

1. Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.

• The Westminster Confession of Faith. 1647.

Declaration

“For transparency, I note that I used Grok, an AI tool developed by xAI, and Grammarly AI for editorial assistance in drafting, organizing, and refining the manuscript’s clarity and grammar, as indicated in the article’s attribution. All theological arguments, exegesis, and interpretations are my own, and I take full responsibility for the content.” –  Jack Kettler

Readings from Church History on the Doctrine of the Trinity

Part I: Foundations, Heresies, and Patristic Testimonies

Introduction

The doctrine of the Trinity, far from being an arbitrary church rule, emerges as the deep essence of the Christian encounter with God. As Alister McGrath notes, it is “the inevitable result of wrestling with the richness and complexity of the Christian experience of God.” This study explores key expressions of Trinitarian theology throughout history, drawing from early church fathers, medieval thinkers, the Reformation, and modern sources, along with official creeds and doctrinal statements. Through these voices, we see a consistent witness to the one God existing forever in three equal persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. As Gregory of Nazianzus beautifully states, “I cannot think on the one without quickly being encircled by the splendor of the three; nor can I see the three without being immediately drawn back to the one.” Echoing Barth’s words, “Trinity is the Christian name for God,” this summary highlights the endless mystery of the divine triune nature.

Trinitarian Heresies and Deviations

The formulation of orthodox Trinitarianism necessitated the repudiation of sundry heterodoxies that distorted the biblical revelation of God’s self-disclosure. These errors, confronted in the early church councils, underscore the delicate balance between divine unity and personal distinction.

·         Modalism (including Sabellianism, Noetianism, Patripassianism, and Monarchianism) suggests that the three persons are just modes or successive revelations of the Godhead, denying their eternal, coexisting existence. Supporters believed that God appears as Father in creation, Son in redemption, and Spirit in sanctification, sequentially, not all at once. Patripassianism, a more extreme form, argued that the Father Himself suffered on the cross in the person of the Son.

·         Tritheism, on the other hand, breaks apart the divine unity by viewing the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three separate gods connected only by a shared substance, thus increasing the number of gods and violating monotheism. This misunderstanding often comes from taking the concept of “persons” (hypostases) too literally, without considering the underlying ousia.

·         Arianism placed the Son as the foremost creature of the Father, though still an agent of creation, which challenged His consubstantial divinity. This debate, crucial to fourth-century Christology, ended with the Nicene declaration of homoousios.

·         Docetism corrupted the idea of the incarnation by claiming Christ’s humanity was an illusion; He seemed human but remained entirely divine, with some variations suggesting that His divinity withdrew at the crucifixion to avoid suffering.

·         Ebionitism, which emphasizes Jesus’ endowment with exceptional charisms, diminished Him to a solely human prophet, deprived of eternal divinity.

·         Macedonianism (or Pneumatomachianism) diminished the Holy Spirit to a created being, subordinate to the Father and Son.

·         Adoptionism describes Jesus as entirely human at birth, with divine sonship conferred either at His baptism or resurrection.

·         Partialism fractured the Godhead into individual parts, with each person embodying only a portion of divinity, coming together to form wholeness only in their union.

·         Binitarianism recognized duality in the Godhead (Father and Son) but downplayed the Spirit’s personal uniqueness.

These deviations, adjudicated in ecumenical councils, fortified the church’s Trinitarian grammar.

Key Terminological Contours

Trinitarian discourse pivoted on precise lexical distinctions, forged amid conciliar deliberations:

·         Hypostasis: denoting “person,” “substance,” or “subsistence,” safeguards personal distinctions without implying division.

·         Ousia: signifying “essence,” “being,” or “substance,” it underscores the singular divine nature.

·         Essence: The Latin substantia renders the Greek ousia, encapsulating the indivisible divine reality.

·         Perichoresis: evoking the mutual indwelling and dynamic interpenetration of the persons, wherein each fully inhabits the others.

·         Homoousios: affirming consubstantiality, “of one and the same substance or being.”

·         Filioque: The Latin clause “and from the Son,” denoting the Spirit’s procession from both Father and Son.

·         Procession: From Greek ekporeuomai (John 15:26) and Latin processio, delineating the Spirit’s eternal emanation.

·         Begotten: Describing the Son’s eternal origin from the Father, without any temporal beginning.

These terms, honed through controversy, delimit the analogical boundaries of human discourse concerning the ineffable God.

Eastern Patristic Witnesses

Athanasius of Alexandria (ca. 325–370 CE), staunchest defender of Nicaea, articulates a robust ontology of triunity in his Statement of Faith:

“We believe in one Unbegotten God, Father Almighty, maker of all things both visible and invisible that hath His being from Himself. And in one Only-begotten Word, Wisdom, Son, begotten of the Father without beginning and eternally… very God of very God… Almighty of Almighty… wholly from the Whole, being like the Father… But He was begotten ineffably and incomprehensibly… We believe, likewise, also in the Holy Spirit that searcheth all things, even the deep things of God… and we anathematise doctrines contrary to this.”

Athanasius repudiates Sabellianism’s conflation and tritheism’s plurality, likening the Father’s deity to water flowing undivided from the well to the river, eternally imparting subsistence to the Son without diminution.

Basil the Great (ca. 330–379 CE), in his Epistle to Amphilochius, harmonizes unity and distinction:

“The Godhead is common; the fatherhood particular… Hence it results that there is a satisfactory preservation of the unity by the confession of the one Godhead, while in the distinction of the individual properties regarded in each there is the confession of the peculiar properties of the Persons.”

Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. 329–390 CE) employs luminous exegesis in Oration 31:

“He was the true light that enlightens every man coming into the world’ (Jn. 1:9)—yes, the Father… yes, the Son… yes, the Comforter… But a single reality was. There are three predicates—light and light and light. But the light is one, God is one.” In Oration 29, he critiques polytheism and modalism: “Monotheism, with its single governing principle, is what we value—not monotheism defined as the sovereignty of a single person… but the single rule produced by equality of nature, harmony of will, identity of action… though there is numerical distinction, there is no division in the substance.”

Western Patristic Witnesses

Tertullian (ca. 160–220 CE), progenitor of Latin Trinitarianism, counters modalism in Against Praxeas:

“We… believe that there is one only God, but under the following dispensation… that this one only God has also a Son, His Word, who proceeded from Himself… Him we believe to have been sent by the Father into the Virgin… both Man and God… who sent also… the Holy Ghost, the Paraclete… three, however, not in condition, but in degree; not in substance, but in form; not in power, but in aspect; yet of one substance, and of one condition, and of one power.”

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE), in On Christian Doctrine, extols the Trinity as the supreme object of enjoyment:

“The true objects of enjoyment… are the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, who are at the same time the Trinity, one Being, supreme above all… each of these by Himself is God, and at the same time they are all one God; and each of them by Himself is a complete substance, and yet they are all one substance… In the Father is unity, in the Son equality, in the Holy Spirit the harmony of unity and equality; and these three attributes are all one because of the Father, all equal because of the Son, and all harmonious because of the Holy Spirit.”

These patristic loci fundamenta establish the Trinitarian axioms: one essence in three persons, eternally coequal and consubstantial.

Part II: Medieval, Reformation, and Modern Articulations; Creeds and Confessions; Prayers and Conclusion

Medieval Scholastic Refinement

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE), in the Summa Theologiae (I, q. 31), elucidates the terminological precision of “Trinity”:

“The name ‘Trinity’ in God signifies the determinate number of persons… the plurality of persons in God requires that we should use the word trinity; because what is indeterminately signified by plurality, is signified by trinity in a determinate manner.” Addressing objections, Aquinas affirms the term’s propriety, denoting not mere relations but the numerated persons in essential unity: “In the divine Trinity… not only is there unity of order, but also with this there is unity of essence.”

In q. 28, a. 2, he navigates Arian and Sabellian pitfalls:

“To avoid the error of Arius we must shun the use of the terms diversity and difference in God… we may, however, use the term ‘distinction’ on account of the relative opposition… But lest the simplicity… be taken away, the terms ‘separation’ and ‘division’… are to be avoided.” On personal nomenclature, “the Son is other than the Father, because He is another suppositum of the divine nature.” Regarding exclusive predications (q. 28, a. 4), Aquinas parses syncategorematic senses: “Thee the only true God… [refers] to the whole Trinity… or, if understood of the person of the Father, the other persons are not excluded by reason of the unity of essence.”

Reformation and Post-Reformation Witnesses

John Calvin (1509–1564 CE), in the Institutes (I.13.6), grounds personal subsistence in scriptural hypostases:

“When the Apostle calls the Son of God ‘the express image of his person’ (Heb. 1:3), he undoubtedly does assign to the Father some subsistence in which he differs from the Son… there is a proper subsistence (hypostasis) of the Father, which shines refulgent in the Son… there are three persons (hypostases) in God.” The baptismal formula (Mt. 28:19) manifests “the three persons, in whom alone God is known, subsist in the Divine essence.” Calvin delights in Gregory’s dialectic (I.13.17): “I cannot think on the one without quickly being encircled by the splendor of the three; nor can I discern the three without being straightway carried back to the one,” cautioning against “a trinity of persons that keeps our thoughts distracted and does not at once lead them back to that unity… a distinction, not a division.”

John Owen (1616–1683 CE) affirms scriptural plenitude:

“There is nothing more fully expressed in the Scripture than this sacred truth, that there is one God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; which are divine, distinct, intelligent, voluntary omnipotent principles of operation.”

Thomas Watson (1620–1686 CE), in his Body of Divinity, expounds Westminster’s Q. 6:

“Three persons, yet but one God… distinguished, but not divided; three substances, but one essence. This is a divine riddle where one makes three, and three make one… In the body of the sun, there are the substance… the beams, and the heat… so in the blessed Trinity.”

Contemporary Theologians

Geerhardus Vos (1862–1949 CE) synthesizes:

“In this one God are three modes of existence, which we refer to by the word ‘person’… distinguished from each other insofar as they assume objective relations toward each other… There is, therefore, subordination as to personal manner of existence and manner of working, but no subordination regarding possession of the one divine substance.”

St. John of Kronstadt (1829–1909 CE) analogizes revelation:

“As the word of the man reveals what is in his mind… so… the Word of God reveals to us the Father… And, through the Word, the Holy Spirit… eternally proceeds from the Father and is revealed to men.”

Louis Berkhof (1873–1949 CE) insists:

“The divine essence is not divided among the three persons, but is wholly with all its perfection in each one.”

Karl Barth (1886–1968 CE) declares:

“The doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distinguishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian… ‘Person’ as used… bears no direct relation to personality… we are speaking not of three divine I’s, but thrice of the one divine I.” God’s unity transcends singularity: “In Himself His unity is neither singularity nor isolation… with the doctrine of the Trinity, we step onto the soil of Christian monotheism.”

Kallistos Ware elucidates perichoretic union:

“God is not simply a single person confined within his own being, but a Trinity of three persons… each of whom ‘dwells’ in the other two, by virtue of a perpetual movement of love. God is not only a unity but a union.”

Thomas F. Torrance (1913–2007 CE) avers:

“The doctrine of the Trinity is the central dogma of Christian theology, the fundamental grammar of our knowledge of God.”

Canonical Creeds

The Athanasian Creed (Quicunque Vult) magisterially balances unity and trinity:

“We worship one God in trinity and the trinity in unity, neither blending their persons nor dividing their essence… the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is one, their glory equal, their majesty coeternal… Yet there are not three gods; there is but one God… So in everything… we must worship their trinity in their unity and their unity in their trinity.”

It appends Chalcedonian Christology for soteriological integrity.

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 CE) professes:

“We believe in one God, the Father Almighty… We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ… of one Being with the Father… We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son].”

The Chalcedonian Definition (451 CE) safeguards dyophysitism:

“We confess… this one and only Christ-Son, Lord, only-begotten in two natures; … without confusing the two natures, without transmuting one nature into the other, without dividing them into two separate categories… The union does not nullify the distinctiveness of each nature.”

Harmony of Reformed Confessions and Catechisms

Reformed standards exhibit catholic continuity:

·         Westminster Confession (2.3): “In the unity of the Godhead there be three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost.”

·         Westminster Larger Catechism (Q. 8–11): Affirms one God in three persons, “the same in substance, equal in power and glory.”

·         Westminster Shorter Catechism (Q. 5–6): “There are three persons in the Godhead; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; and these three are one God.”

·         Belgic Confession (Art. 8–9): “We believe in one only God, who is one single essence, in which are three persons… equal in eternity. There is neither first nor last.”

Trinitarian Prayers: Western and Eastern

·         Western piety, per John Stott: “Heavenly Father, I worship you… Lord Jesus, I worship you… Holy Spirit, I worship you… Glory to the Father, and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit… Holy, blessed and glorious Trinity… have mercy upon me.”

·         Eastern Trisagion: “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us… All-holy Trinity, have mercy on us… Our Father, who art in the heavens… For Thine is the kingdom… of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.”

Conclusion

This historical conspectus reveals the Trinity’s perduring vitality, bridging East and West. As Robert Letham notes of Calvin: “His focus on the three persons rather than the one essence is more like the Eastern approach than the Western… The three persons imply a distinction, not a division.” Yet human finitude limits comprehension, as C. S. Lewis says: “If Christianity were something we were making up… we would make it easier… We are dealing with fact.” Echoing Tersteegen, “A God understood… is no God,” and Berkhof’s finitum non capax infinitum, we confess with reverent agnosticism. The Triune God, ineffable yet revelatory, summons doxological awe.

Notes

[Notes follow the original numbering, adapted for scholarly format: e.g., 1. Athanasius, *Four Discourses Against the Arians*, trans. J. H. Newman (NPNF 4; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955), 83–85. Subsequent notes analogously revised for precision.]

The above article was Groked under the direction of Jack Kettler and perfected using Grammarly AI.

“For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal but mighty in God for pulling down strongholds, casting down arguments and every high thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of God, bringing every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ.” (2 Corinthians 10:4-5)

Mr. Kettler, an author who has published works in Chalcedon Report and Contra Mundum, is an active RPCNA member in Westminster, CO, with 19 books defending the Reformed Faith available on Amazon.