Tag Archives: Theology

Leaving Orthodoxy

“The following article was generated by Grok 4 (xAI) in response to prompts from [Jack

Kettler]; I have edited it with Grammarly AI for style.”

“A Commendable Critique: Joshua Schooping, ‘Disillusioned: Why I Left the Eastern Orthodox Priesthood and Church’ (Theophany Press, 2022; 2nd ed., 2022).”

In the burgeoning field of intra-Christian theological dialogue, particularly amid the contemporary “conversion narratives” that have drawn many from Protestant traditions into the embrace of Eastern Orthodoxy, Joshua Schooping’s “Disillusioned” emerges as a singular and indispensable contribution. Schooping, formerly a priest in both the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the Orthodox Church in America (OCA), having completed theological formation at St. Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Seminary and served approximately five years in parochial ministry, writes not as an external polemicist but as one who has traversed the full arc of reception, ordination, and conscientious departure. Now serving as pastor of St. John’s Lutheran Church (LCMS) in Russellville, Arkansas, he offers what may justly be termed the most rigorous insider critique of Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology, iconology, and soteriology yet produced in English. Far from a mere memoir of disaffection, the volume constitutes a meticulously documented “apologia” for the purity of the evangelical Gospel, grounded in a novel “canonical argument” that holds the Orthodox tradition accountable to its own conciliar and synodical “auctoritates”.

The work is structured in two principal parts. Part I, “Personal Impressions,” comprises a single, candid chapter, “The Ravings of an Apostate,” wherein Schooping narrates his journey out of the priesthood. This section is no sensational exposé but a theologically reflective account of intellectual and spiritual awakening. During the constraints of the recent pandemic, Schooping undertook the labor of compiling “The Holy Standards”, a comprehensive collection of Orthodox canons and synodical decrees. This exercise, far from confirming the much-vaunted “unchanging Tradition,” precipitated a crisis: the discovery that formal Orthodox positions—articulated in the Synodikon of Orthodoxy and the decrees of the Seventh Ecumenical Council—pronounce anathemas upon non-Orthodox Christians, equate refusal of iconodulia with damnation, and embed within the liturgical and dogmatic corpus assertions that, in Schooping’s sober judgment, “formally confuses the Gospel through its iconology, its ecclesiology, and even through its Mariology” (p. 22). The personal narrative is thus subordinated to doctrinal discovery, modeling the integration of “vita? and “theologia” that characterizes the best patristic and Reformation-era reflection.

Part II, “Doctrinal Studies,” constitutes the scholarly core and spans nine chapters plus an introductory exposition of the methodological key: the “canonical argument.” Rather than pitting selective patristic florilegia against one another—a tactic frequently employed in Orthodox apologetics—Schooping insists that Orthodoxy must be judged by its own authoritative, binding synodal statements. This approach is both irenic and devastating, for it eschews impressionistic critique in favor of immanent accountability. Chapter 1 (“Sect: The Inextricably Exclusive Ecclesiology”) demonstrates how the Orthodox Church’s self-understanding as the “una sancta” necessitates the formal exclusion of all other baptized Christians from the Body of Christ, rendering extracanonical ecclesial communities not merely deficient but soteriologically null. Subsequent chapters dissect iconology with particular acuity: Chapter 2 (“Iconology and Imperial Captivity”) traces the “metamorphosis of theology” under Romano-Byzantine imperial influence, distinguishing Protestant aniconism from both iconoclasm and the mandated “proskynesis” of the Second Council of Nicaea (787); Chapter 3 offers a precise refutation of St. John of Damascus’s “Apologia” against those who accuse the Damascene of conflating “latria” and “douleia”.

The Mariological sections (Chapters 4–5, “Reshaming Eve” and “Mary, A Novel Way”) are especially noteworthy for their engagement with Gregory Palamas and the Akathist Hymn tradition. Schooping demonstrates how Palamite hesychasm and the liturgical elevation of the Theotokos as “source of life,” “sin offering,” and co-mediatrix subtly shift the “ordo salutis” away from the sole sufficiency of Christ’s atoning work toward a synergistic economy in which the Virgin becomes instrumental in the distribution of uncreated energies. Far from dishonoring the Mother of God, Schooping argues, a robustly biblical and patristic Mariology—drawing upon Irenaeus (Chapter 7)—preserves her as the exemplar of receptive faith rather than a quasi-soteriological principle. Chapter 6 (“Anathema”) confronts the ritual cursing embedded in the Synodikon, while Chapters 8–9 engage Cyprian of Carthage and Irenaeus on ecclesial unity and presuppositional authority, exposing the anachronistic projection of later conciliarism onto the ante-Nicene Church. Appendices and excursuses further buttress the analysis with primary-source translations and historical contextualization.

What renders “Disillusioned” particularly commendable is its methodological rigor and evangelical warmth. Schooping’s command of the Greek and Slavonic sources, his familiarity with the liturgical corpus, and his refusal to caricature render the critique unassailable on grounds of ignorance or bigotry. The volume exemplifies what Richard Muller has termed “confessional irenicism”: a critique born not of sectarian animus but of zeal for the “sola gratia, sola fide, solus Christus” that the author rediscovered—surprisingly—in patristic witnesses to penal substitutionary atonement. By foregrounding the Gospel’s clarity over against any ecclesial “pleroma” that would condition justification upon ritual veneration or institutional exclusivity, Schooping performs a genuine service to the “una sancta catholica”.

The book’s publication has, predictably, elicited responses from within Orthodox clergy circles, furnishing an illuminating case study in the very dynamics it critiques. Most notably, the June 18, 2025, episode of “Ancient Faith Today Live” (“Answering the Claims of a Former Priest”), hosted by Fr. Thomas Soroka with additional Orthodox participants, sought to address Schooping’s arguments. Regrettably, the discussion largely bypassed substantive engagement with the canonical citations—e.g., the Synodikon’s anathemas or Nicaea II’s equation of icon denial with “complete separation from God”—in favor of ad hominem observations regarding the author’s brevity of tenure, alleged instability, or supposed failure to grasp “living Tradition.” Similar tones appear in scattered online Orthodox forums and video responses (e.g., those associated with Fr. John Whiteford). Such rejoinders, while understandable as pastoral defense of the faithful, inadvertently corroborate Schooping’s central thesis: when pressed to defend formal positions rather than curated patristic excerpts or the authority of the “Church” qua living magisterium, Orthodox apologetics frequently retreats into appeals to experience or authority that presuppose the very ecclesiology under scrutiny. Schooping himself has graciously engaged in these exchanges in subsequent interviews (e.g., on “Truth Unites” with Gavin Ortlund and on Lutheran podcasts), modeling the very charity and clarity his critics sometimes lack. These interactions only enhance the book’s value as a catalyst for serious ecumenical theology.

In sum, “Disillusioned” is a work of genuine theological courage and scholarly depth. It will prove indispensable for seminarians, pastors, and laity navigating the contemporary appeal of Eastern Orthodoxy, as well as for Orthodox theologians willing to grapple honestly with their tradition’s conciliar legacy. By recovering the Gospel’s purity from within the very structures that once seemed to embody it most fully, Joshua Schooping has rendered a signal service to the Church catholic. One hopes that this volume will not only disillusion the overly romantic but also re-enchant many with the Reformation’s retrieval of apostolic simplicity. Highly recommended.

An Addendum

Distinctives in Orthodox Conciliar Teaching Formally Bar Non-Orthodox from the Ordinary Economy of Salvation.

In the dogmatic self-understanding of the Eastern Orthodox Church—as expressed in the Synodikon of Orthodoxy (proclaimed annually on the First Sunday of Great Lent since 843), the Confession of Dositheus issued by the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), and the broader patristic-synodical consensus—the Church is the unique ark of salvation, the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Body of Christ in which alone the fullness of deifying grace (*theosis*) is ordinarily accessible. The classical formula “extra Ecclesiam nulla salus” (no salvation outside the Church), rooted in St. Cyprian of Carthage and reaffirmed in Orthodox sources, is not merely rhetorical; it carries binding ecclesiological weight. While many contemporary Orthodox hierarchs and theologians (e.g., statements from the Orthodox Church in America and Greek Orthodox Archdiocese) invoke divine “oikonomia” (economy/mercy) to leave the ultimate fate of non-Orthodox Christians to the inscrutable judgment of God—who “desires all men to be saved” (1 Tim 2:4)—the formal, conciliar positions treat persistent rejection of Orthodox distinctives as schism or heresy that severs one from the sacramental life of the Church. God may save “extraordinary” individuals outside the visible bounds, but such salvation is not the normative path Christ instituted.

The question already identifies two such distinctives: (1) “Orthodox baptism” (understood as triple immersion with the Trinitarian formula, effecting regeneration and the remission of original and actual sins, with an indelible character—Decree 16 of Dositheus), and (2) “the embrace of icons” (veneration with “proskynesis” as dogmatized by the Seventh Ecumenical Council and enshrined in the Synodikon, where refusal is equated with “apostasy from Christ” and “complete separation from God,” anathematized repeatedly with the triple curse: “Anathema! Anathema! Anathema!”). These are non-negotiable for full ecclesial membership.

Beyond these, the following additional Orthodox distinctives are formally required and function as barriers according to the same authoritative texts. Rejection of any places one outside the Church’s salvific economy:

1. Chrismation (Confirmation) as the Immediate Complement to Baptism and Seal of the Holy Spirit. Orthodox initiation is triune: baptism → chrismation → Eucharist. Holy chrism, consecrated by a bishop and containing the “energies” of the Spirit, imparts the full gift of the Paraclete for theosis (Decree 15 of Dositheus lists it among the seven mysteries as conveying “efficient grace, not mere signs”). Protestants and many Catholics lack this mystery in its Orthodox form; without it, the baptized remain incomplete in the Orthodox view. The Synodikon implicitly includes this under innovations outside patristic tradition.

2. The Real, Substantial Presence in the Eucharist (Metousiosis) and Its Character as Propitiatory Sacrifice. Decree 17 of Dositheus explicitly teaches that the bread and wine become the very Body and Blood of Christ “by metousiosis” (a term parallel to transubstantiation), to be adored with “latria” (divine worship). The Divine Liturgy is a true, bloodless sacrifice offered to the Trinity for the living and the dead. Symbolic or memorialist views (common in Protestantism) are condemned as denying the “real sacrifice.” The Synodikon anathematizes those who deny the daily Liturgy’s identity with the Cross or who treat the Eucharist as a mere figure. Regular, worthy reception in an Orthodox temple is essential to theosis; extracanonical communion is invalid.

3. The Intercession of Saints, Veneration of Relics, and Elevated Mariology. Decree 8 affirms that, while Christ is the sole Mediator, the saints (especially the Theotokos) intercede effectively; their relics and icons are to be venerated with *dulia* (or “hyperdulia” for Mary). The Akathist Hymn tradition and Palamite theology elevate the Virgin as “source of life” and co-worker in salvation. The Synodikon curses those who reject saintly intercession or miracles as “vain opinions.” Protestants who reject prayers to saints or the Theotokos’s perpetual virginity, sinlessness in Orthodox terms, and mediatorial role stand under these anathemas.

4. Synergistic Soteriology: Faith Working through Love, Works, and Cooperation with Uncreated Grace for Theosis. Decrees 3, 9, 13, and 14 of Dositheus reject *sola fide*, unconditional predestination, and total inability, insisting that justification is by “faith working through love” (Gal 5:6) and that post-baptismal free will cooperates with divine energies (the Palamite essence-energies distinction, anathematized against Barlaam in the Synodikon). Salvation is deification—a lifelong process of acquiring the divine likeness through sacraments, asceticism, prayer (including hesychasm), and good works. Monergism or forensic justification alone is anathematized as “blasphemous” and “worse than the infidels.”

5. Infallible Authority of Holy Tradition, the Seven Ecumenical Councils, and the Church’s Magisterium. Decrees 2, 10, 11, and 12 of Dositheus affirm that Scripture is interpreted only by the Church, which is infallible through the Holy Spirit speaking in Fathers and Synods. “Sola scriptura” is rejected; private judgment leads to heresy. The Synodikon curses “innovations outside Church tradition” and those who reject any of the seven councils. Acceptance of the full conciliar deposit (including Nicaea II on icons) is required.

6. Rejection of the Filioque and Other Western “Innovations” (e.g., Purgatory in the Latin sense, Papal Supremacy, Unleavened Bread). The 1583 patriarchal addition to the Synodikon (ratified by Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem) anathematizes those who do not confess the Spirit proceeds “from the Father only,” who receive one kind in communion, who use unleavened bread, who posit a purgatorial fire ending torments by indulgences, or who accept the Pope as universal head. Decree 18 of Dositheus affirms prayers for the dead that aid souls in intermediate states. These separate Catholics and Protestants alike.

7. Visible Communion in the One Orthodox Church under Bishops in Apostolic Succession. Decree 10 insists on the episcopal hierarchy as essential; the Church is not an “invisible” body of all believers. The Synodikon’s general anathema, “To all heretics: Anathema!”—and its specific curses on schismatics close the circle: only those baptized, chrismated, and communing within the canonical Orthodox Church (currently in communion with Constantinople, Moscow, etc., despite current tensions) participate fully in salvation’s normal means.

In sum, these distinctives form an integrated “phronema” (mindset) and liturgical-sacramental reality. The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) was convened precisely to delineate them from Reformed Protestantism, producing a document that was received pan-Orthodoxly as a symbolic text. The Synodikon, read liturgically, ritually enacts the exclusion of all who persist in these “heresies.” Joshua Schooping’s “Disillusioned” rightly highlights how such formal positions—especially the anathemas and exclusive ecclesiology—embed a soteriology that conditions the Gospel’s clarity upon institutional and ritual adherence, rendering non-Orthodox (even sincere Trinitarian Christians) formally outside the ark.

Orthodox pastoral practice today often softens this with economia (e.g., receiving certain converts by chrismation only, or hoping in God’s mercy), yet the conciliar texts remain unrepealed and liturgically proclaimed. Thus, from the strict Orthodox standpoint, yes, far more than baptism and icons stand between non-Orthodox Christians and the assured path to theosis. The question of whether God nevertheless saves many outside these bounds belongs to His sovereign mercy, not to the Church’s ordinary proclamation.

A heartfelt plea:

 In light of the Synodikon of Orthodoxy’s repeated anathemas (proclaimed liturgically each year on the Sunday of Orthodoxy), the decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), and the explicit statements of the Seventh Ecumenical Council equating refusal of icon veneration with apostasy and ‘complete separation from God’—as well as the broader conciliar insistence that the Orthodox Church alone is the ark of salvation in its ordinary economy—have you personally informed your non-Orthodox Christian friends and family (Protestant, Roman Catholic, or otherwise) that, according to the binding teaching of the Church you have joined, their persistent rejection of these distinctives (Orthodox baptism, chrismation, Eucharistic metousiosis as propitiatory sacrifice, synergistic theosis via uncreated energies, veneration of icons and saints, rejection of the Filioque and sola scriptura, etc.) places them formally outside the salvific communion of the one true Church and under the risk of eternal damnation unless they embrace and enter the Orthodox faith? If not, how do you reconcile withholding this consequence with your new conviction that these are not mere opinions but dogmas essential to the fullness of the Gospel?

“The above article was generated by Grok 4 (xAI) in response to prompts from [Jack Kettler]; I have edited it with Grammarly AI for style, and using AI for the glory of God.”

“For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal but mighty in God for pulling down strongholds, casting down arguments and every high thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of God, bringing every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ.” (2 Corinthians 10:4-5)

For more research: “The Failure of Eastern Orthodoxy.”  https://www.orthodox.video/ 

Answers to Questions on Patristics and Other Relevant Issues: A Reformed Theological Perspective

Introduction: A Reformed Theological Challenge to Ecclesiastical Misrepresentations of Patristic Consensus and Related Matters

In the perennial ecclesiological and soteriological discourses between Reformed theology and the communions of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, a persistent apologetic motif arises: the invocation of an allegedly unanimous patristic consensus purportedly affirming the dogmatic continuity and magisterial authority of these traditions in opposition to Protestantism. This narrative, frequently advanced with rhetorical force in polemical arenas, portrays the Church Fathers as a monolithic repository of theological consensus, embodying an uninterrupted apostolic tradition that ostensibly prefigures and legitimates subsequent developments, such as Roman primacy, Marian dogmas, iconodulia, and conciliar infallibility. From the Reformed perspective, anchored in the regulative primacy of “sola Scriptura”, such assertions constitute a significant historiographical and hermeneutical aberration. This selective anachronism projects post-patristic doctrinal accretions onto the early ecclesiastical milieu while obfuscating the manifest pluriformity, developmental dynamism, and occasional heterodoxies inherent in patristic thought.

Reformed theology, repudiating the Tridentine exaltation of tradition to a coequal authoritative locus, esteems the Fathers not as an infallible “depositum fidei” but as fallible attestors whose contributions must be rigorously evaluated against the “norma normans non normata” of Holy Scripture. The notion of patristic unanimity disintegrates under critical examination, unveiling instead a mosaic of theological diversity, contextual exigencies, and explicit contradictions with later ecclesiastical declarations. This heterogeneity reinforces the Reformed tenet that no human tradition, regardless of its antiquity, can supplant the sufficiency of Scripture for faith and practice (2 Tim. 3:16–17). To dismantle this misrepresentation, we present paradigmatic instances wherein “patres ecclesiae”, revered by both Roman and Orthodox traditions, espouse positions antithetical to contemporary dogmatic articulations. These exemplars function not as mere antiquarian curios but as evidentiary substantiations that the patristic epoch offers no unequivocal endorsement of Roman or Orthodox claims, thereby validating the Reformed recourse to Scripture alone as the supreme arbiter of orthodoxy.

Building on this foundational critique, we proceed to enumerate specific patristic divergences from Roman Catholic doctrines, thereby illuminating the fractures in the asserted consensus and paving the way for a parallel examination of Orthodox counterparts.

Patristic Divergences from Roman Catholic Doctrinal Formulations

The following ten examples outline Church Fathers acknowledged by the Roman Catholic Church, whose teachings, as articulated in their works, contradict modern-day ecclesiastical teachings, underscoring the developmental and non-monolithic character of early Christian theology.

1. Basil the Great on Mary’s Immaculate Conception: Basil intimates that Mary encountered doubt at the Cross, thereby impugning the modern Catholic dogma of the Immaculate Conception (promulgated in 1854), which posits Mary’s preservation from all sin, encompassing doubt or scandal. Citation: “Simeon therefore prophesies about Mary herself, that when standing by the cross, and beholding what is being done, and hearing the voices, after the witness of Gabriel, after her secret knowledge of the divine conception, after the great exhibition of miracles, she shall feel about her soul a mighty tempest. The Lord was bound to taste of death for every man—to become a propitiation for the world and to justify all men by His own blood. Even you yourself, who hast been taught from on high the things concerning the Lord, shall be reached by some doubt. This is the sword. ‘That the thoughts of many hearts may be revealed.’ He indicates that after the offense at the Cross of Christ a certain swift healing shall come from the Lord to the disciples and to Mary herself, confirming their heart in faith in Him.” (Letter 260.9). Basil is venerated as a Church Father and Doctor by the Roman Catholic Church.

2. John Chrysostom on Mary’s Immaculate Conception: Chrysostom implies Mary’s action stemmed from vanity, suggesting sinful inclination, which contravenes the Immaculate Conception. Citation: “And this He said, not as being ashamed of His mother, nor denying her that bare Him; for if He had been ashamed of her, He would not have passed through that womb; but as declaring that she has no advantage from this, unless she do all that is required to be done. For in fact that which she had essayed to do, was of superfluous vanity; in that she wanted to show the people that she has power and authority over her Son, imagining not as yet anything great concerning Him; whence also her unseasonable approach.” (Homilies in Matthew, Homily 44.3). Chrysostom is venerated as a Church Father and Doctor by the Roman Catholic Church.

3. Hilary of Poitiers on Mary’s Immaculate Conception: Hilary posits that Mary would confront judgment akin to others, implying sinfulness, thus contradicting the Immaculate Conception. Citation: “if this virgin, made capable of conceiving God, will encounter the severity of this judgment, who will dare to escape?” (Tractatus in Ps. 118). Hilary is venerated as a Church Father and Doctor by the Roman Catholic Church.

4. Fulgentius of Ruspe on Mary’s Immaculate Conception: Fulgentius asserts Mary’s conception in iniquity, directly opposing the Immaculate Conception. Citation: “conceived in iniquity in accordance with human practice.” (Epistula 17.13). Fulgentius is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

5. Cyprian of Carthage on Papal Supremacy: Cyprian repudiates any bishop’s authority over peers, countering modern Catholic doctrines of papal primacy and universal jurisdiction (as articulated in Vatican I, 1870). Citation: “For neither does any of us set himself up as a bishop of bishops, nor by tyrannical terror does any compel his colleague to the necessity of obedience; since every bishop, according to the allowance of his liberty and power, has his own proper right of judgment, and can no more be judged by another than he himself can judge another. But let us all wait for the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the only one that has the power both of preferring us in the government of His Church, and of judging us in our conduct there.” (Seventh Council of Carthage). Cyprian is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

6. Firmilian on Papal Supremacy: Firmilian censures Pope Stephen’s authoritative pretensions as folly, undermining papal infallibility and supremacy. Citation: “And in this respect I am justly indignant at this so open and manifest folly of Stephen, that he who so boasts of the place of his episcopate, and contends that he holds the succession from Peter, on whom the foundations of the Church were laid, should introduce many other rocks and establish new buildings of many churches; maintaining that there is baptism in them by his authority.” (Cyprian Letter 74:17). Firmilian is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

7. Irenaeus of Lyons on Papal Supremacy: In the Paschal controversy, Irenaeus depicts Pope Anicetus and Polycarp as equals who disagreed yet preserved amity, without subordination, thus contradicting papal supremacy. Citation: “For neither could Anicetus persuade Polycarp to forego the observance [in his own way], inasmuch as these things had been always [so] observed by John the disciple of our Lord, and by other apostles with whom he had been conversant; nor, on the other hand, could Polycarp succeed in persuading Anicetus to keep [the observance in his way], for he maintained that he was bound to adhere to the usage of the presbyters who preceded him. And in this state of affairs they held fellowship with each other; and Anicetus conceded to Polycarp in the Church the celebration of the Eucharist, by way of showing him respect; so that they parted in peace one from the other, maintaining peace with the whole Church, both those who did observe [this custom] and those who did not.” (Fragment from Irenaeus 3). Irenaeus is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

8. Justin Martyr on Millenarianism: Justin espouses a literal millennial reign of Christ on earth, contravening the modern Catholic disavowal of millenarianism (CCC 676). Citation: “I and many others are of this opinion, and believe that such will take place … but, on the other hand, many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise.” (Dialogue with Trypho). Justin is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

9. Irenaeus of Lyons on Millenarianism: Irenaeus teaches a literal eschaton after six millennia followed by a millennial reign, opposing Catholic amillennialism. Citation: “For in as many days as this world was made, in so many thousand years shall it be concluded. And for this reason the Scripture says: ‘Thus the heaven and the earth were finished, and all their adornment. And God brought to a conclusion upon the sixth day the works that He had made; and God rested upon the seventh day from all His works.’ This is an account of the things formerly created, as also it is a prophecy of what is to come. For the day of the Lord is as a thousand years; and in six days created things were completed: it is evident, therefore, that they will come to an end at the sixth thousand year.” (Against Heresies 5:XXXVIII:3). Irenaeus is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

10. Epiphanius of Salamis on Icons: Epiphanius opposes saintly images, contradicting modern Catholic endorsement of icon veneration (as per Nicaea II, 787). Citation: “Moreover, they are deceiving who represent the likeness of [biblical] saints in various forms according to their fancy, sometimes delineating them indeed as men, sometimes as lions, sometimes as eagles, and sometimes as crows; and if you wish better to understand my meaning [take heed that none] possess an image either of the old or new testament, lest perchance your soul make an image of God.” (Letter to Emperor Theodosius). Epiphanius is venerated as a Church Father by the Roman Catholic Church.

Having delineated these patristic tensions with Roman Catholic dogma, it is now time to turn to analogous discrepancies within the Eastern Orthodox tradition, thereby extending the critique to encompass both major non-Protestant communions and highlighting the broader implications for claims of uninterrupted apostolic succession.

Patristic Divergences from Eastern Orthodox Doctrinal Formulations

In parallel fashion, the ensuing ten exempla illustrate Church Fathers acknowledged by the Eastern Orthodox Church whose positions conflict with contemporary ecclesiastical teachings, further evincing the patristic corpus’s intrinsic diversity.

1. Clement of Alexandria on Religious Images: Contradicting Eastern Orthodox icon veneration, Clement opposes honoring images religiously. Citation: “But it is with a different kind of spell that art deludes you… it leads you to pay religious honour and worship to images and pictures. The picture is like. Well and good! Let art receive its meed of praise, but let it not deceive man by passing itself off for truth.” (Exhortation to the Heathen 4, ANF).

2. Clement of Alexandria on Prohibiting Images of Idols: Clement forbids delineating religious figures, opposing icon veneration. Citation: “And let our seals be either a dove, or a fish, or a ship scudding before the wind, or a musical lyre… For we are not to delineate the faces of idols, we who are prohibited to cleave to them.” (The Instructor 3.11).

3. Irenaeus on Misuse of Images in Religious Contexts: Through analogy, Irenaeus criticizes rearranging sacred images into false forms, contravening icon veneration. Citation: “Their manner of acting is just as if one, when a beautiful image of a king has been constructed by some skilful artist out of precious jewels, should then take this likeness of the man all to pieces, should rearrange the gems, and so fit them together as to make them into the form of a dog or of a fox… and should deceive the ignorant who had no conception what a king’s form was like.” (Against Heresies 1.8).

4. Clement of Alexandria on Images Being Inert and Profane: Clement deems images inert and profane, contradicting the sacred status of icons in Orthodox worship. Citation: “Now the images and temples constructed by mechanics are made of inert matter; so that they too are inert, and material, and profane; and if you perfect the art, they partake of mechanical coarseness. Works of art cannot then be sacred and divine.” (The Stromata 7:5).

5. Ignatius of Antioch on Rome’s Teaching Authority: Ignatius implies Rome’s superior teaching role, contradicting Orthodox conciliar ecclesiology sans papal supremacy. Citation: “You [Rome] have envied no one, but others have you taught. I desire only that what you have enjoined in your instructions may remain in force.” (Epistle to the Romans 3:1 [A.D. 110]).

6. Irenaeus on Agreement with Rome: Irenaeus mandates agreement with Rome due to its superior origin, opposing Orthodox rejection of papal jurisdiction. Citation: “With that church [Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.” (Against Heresies 3:3:2 [A.D. 189]).

7. Cyprian of Carthage on the Chair of Peter: Cyprian emphasizes Rome as the source of sacerdotal unity, contravening Orthodox primacy of honor without supremacy. Citation: “With a false bishop appointed for themselves by heretics, they dare even to set sail and carry letters from schismatics and blasphemers to the Chair of Peter and to the principal church [at Rome], in which sacerdotal unity has its source.” (Epistle to Cornelius [Bishop of Rome] 59:14 [A.D. 252]).

8. Hermas on Remarriage After Divorce: Hermas prohibits remarriage, contradicting Orthodox allowance of up to three marriages post-divorce. Citation: “But if he put his wife away and marry another, he also commits adultery.” (The Shepherd, Book II, Commandment 4 [A.D. 150]).

9. Athenagoras of Athens on No Release from Marriage: Athenagoras forbids any remarriage, opposing Orthodox permission post-adultery. Citation: “For whosoever puts away his wife, says He [Christ], and marries another, commits adultery; not permitting a man to send her away whose virginity he has brought to an end, nor to marry again.” (A Plea for the Christians, Chapter 33 [A.D. 178]).

10. Basil the Great on Abandoned Wives Remaining Single: Basil excludes remarriage even after abandonment, contravening Orthodox “oikonomia”. Citation: “The woman who has been abandoned by her husband, ought, in my judgment, to remain as she is. The Lord said, ‘If any one leave his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, he causes her to commit adultery’; thus, by calling her adulteress, He excludes her from intercourse with another man.” (Letter 199, Canon XLVIII).

The Veneration of the Church Fathers, a Reformed Response

From a Reformed theological perspective, grounded in the confessional standards of the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) and the Belgic Confession (1561), the query regarding whether Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox at times venerate the writings of the Church Fathers as divine traditions must be addressed with a nuanced affirmation of the phenomenon, coupled with a principled critique that underscores the perils of such elevation in light of sola Scriptura. Indeed, both communions exhibit a pronounced tendency to accord patristic texts an exalted status within their respective understandings of sacred tradition, often functionally treating select writings—such as those of Athanasius, Basil the Great, or Augustine—as extensions of divine revelation, albeit not formally equating them with the canonical Scriptures’ unique inspiration. In Roman Catholicism, this manifests in the magisterial framework delineated by the Council of Trent (Session IV, 1546) and reiterated in Dei Verbum (Vatican II, 1965), wherein the consensus patrum is invoked as an interpretive lens for the depositum fidei, with Doctors of the Church like Thomas Aquinas or Jerome regarded as divinely guided witnesses whose expositions on doctrines such as transubstantiation or Marian perpetual virginity carry near-normative weight, potentially blurring the distinction between apostolic revelation and post-apostolic elaboration. Similarly, Eastern Orthodoxy, as articulated in the patristic revivalism of Georges Florovsky’s “neo-patristic synthesis” or the hesychastic emphases of Gregory Palamas, integrates the Fathers into Holy Tradition as a Spirit-infused continuum, where texts like John of Damascus’s “On the Orthodox Faith” are venerated as participatory in the divine energies, effectively sacralizing them in liturgical and dogmatic contexts, such as defenses of iconodulia at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). However, from the Reformed vantage, this veneration risks idolatry of human tradition, contravening the scriptural admonition against adding to God’s Word (Deut. 4:2; Rev. 22:18–19) and subordinating the Bible’s sufficiency (2 Tim. 3:16–17) to a fallible patristic corpus marked by diversity, contradictions (e.g., Cyprian’s ecclesiology versus later papal claims), and contextual contingencies. The Westminster Confession (I.2–10) aptly subordinates the Fathers as ministerial aids—valuable for illumination but corrigible by Scripture’s norma normans non normata—lest the church replicate the Pharisaic error rebuked by Christ for nullifying divine commandments through human traditions (Mark 7:6–13). Thus, while acknowledging the historical reverence afforded to patristic writings in Catholic and Orthodox paradigms, Reformed theology insists on their ancillary role, safeguarding the unmediated sovereignty of Scripture against any quasi-divine ascription that might encumber the gospel’s purity with accretive encrustations.

The Church Fathers and Modern Scholarship

In the history of Christian theology, the Church Fathers—those esteemed patres ecclesiae from the Patristic era, covering the ante-Nicene, Nicene, and post-Nicene periods—remain essential witnesses to the apostolic depositum fidei. They offer hermeneutical insights into scriptural interpretation, doctrinal development, and church practice that continue to shed light on modern dogmatics and spiritual growth. Their writings, reflecting the intellectual strength of early Christianity amid philosophical blending and heretical debates, provide a rich tapestry of theological thought, from Irenaeus’s anti-Gnostic arguments to Augustine’s deep studies of grace and predestination. These writings serve as secondary norms (norma normata) subordinate to the scriptural norma normans non normata, and support ecumenical creeds while fostering a sense of historical continuity within the communion of saints. However, the rise of modern scholarly tools—including advanced philology for analyzing Koine Greek and Latin, rigorous textual criticism that has identified manuscript variations and corrected interpolations through stemmatic analysis and codicological research, as well as historical research informed by archaeological findings, social and cultural context, and interdisciplinary methods—has somewhat diminished the direct authority once given to these early church leaders. This development reveals their diverse nature, occasional heterodoxies, and developmental stages, necessitating a critical renewal of respect that balances veneration with scholarly caution and emphasizes the ongoing importance of biblical authority in theological discussions.

Summation of Patristic Divergences and Their Theological Implications

The patristic divergences elucidated herein—spanning Marian sinlessness, ecclesial primacy, eschatological millenarianism, and iconodulia—expose the intrinsic heterogeneity of early Christian thought, thereby undermining the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox dependence on a presumed “consensus partum” as an impregnable apologetic fortress. This curatorial selectivity, wherein congruent patristic loci are exalted to paradigmatic stature while incongruent elements are consigned to spheres of nascent development or historical contingency, reveals not an organic allegiance to apostolic tradition but a retrojective eisegesis buttressing institutional self-legitimation: for Rome, the inexorable progression toward Petrine absolutism; for Orthodoxy, the sacralization of conciliar equilibrium devoid of universal jurisdiction. From a Reformed theological perspective, rooted in the “sola Scriptura” axiom, such hermeneutical sleight-of-hand merely accentuates the fallibility of human witnesses and the hazards of subordinating biblical normativity to magisterial intermediation. The Fathers, revered as ancillary elucidators rather than authoritative adjudicators, thus corroborate the Protestant mandate to reclaim the unmediated sovereignty of Scripture, wherein the doctrines of justification by faith alone (“sola fide”) and grace alone (“sola gratia”) manifest not as novelties but as the pristine reclamation of evangelical verity, unburdened by the accretive encrustations of subsequent ecclesiasticism.

Building upon this patristic analysis, which challenges the foundational claims of unanimity, we now address the epistemological underpinnings of the debate, particularly the mutual accusations of circular reasoning that pervade inter-confessional polemics, thereby transitioning to a deeper exploration of authority structures in Christian theology.

Circular Reasoning in Debates on Ultimate Authority

Both parties in this theological contention—Protestants on one side, and Roman Catholics/Eastern Orthodox on the other—routinely indict each other of circular reasoning in establishing supreme authority for Christian doctrine and praxis. These imputations exhibit structural parallelism, albeit each faction contends that its stance evades genuine circularity by anchoring authority in a self-authenticating or historically verifiable foundation. The ensuing analysis dissects this dialectic step by step, incorporating representative arguments to illuminate the epistemological impasse.

1. The Catholic/Orthodox Accusations Against Sola Scriptura 

“Sola Scriptura”, the Protestant axiom positing the Bible as the exclusive infallible rule of faith and practice, is frequently assailed as circular by Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox critics, who argue that Protestants invoke the Bible to substantiate its own sufficiency and authority. 

   • Exemplarily, when Protestants reference texts like 2 Timothy 3:16-17 to affirm Scripture’s adequacy, they presuppose biblical authority to validate that very authority, engendering a loop: The Bible is veridical and sufficient because it self-proclaims as such. 

   • Eastern Orthodox voices amplify this, asserting that “sola Scriptura” engenders doctrinal fragmentation via unmediated individual interpretation, as evidenced by Protestant denominational multiplicity, thereby eroding its credibility as a dependable faith rule. 

   • Apologists such as Trent Horn contend this constitutes a fallacy, neglecting the historical canonization of Scripture through ecclesiastical councils and tradition, rendering Protestant appeals self-referential and ahistorical.

2. The Protestant Accusation Against Appeals to the Church Fathers and the Church 

Protestants reciprocate by charging that Catholic and Orthodox invocations of the Church Fathers and magisterium are equivalently circular, wherein the Church delineates authoritative tradition, selectively aligns patristic writings, and employs them to ratify its own prerogative.

   • This yields a loop: The Church is authoritative because the Church (or its tradition) declares it so. For instance, Orthodox definitions of the “One True Church” as the preserver of the Apostolic Faith circularly defer to the Church for the content of the Apostolic Faith. 

   • Concerning the Fathers, Protestants aver selective quotation supports doctrines like apostolic succession, yet the Fathers often prioritized Scripture (e.g., Athanasius deeming Scriptures “sufficient” in his 39th Festal Letter). Patristic disagreements (e.g., Cyprian on baptism) demonstrate tradition’s fallibility, with the Church retroactively adjudicating authority in a self-reinforcing manner. 

   • Biblical precedents of errant human authorities (e.g., Jesus rebuking Pharisaic traditions in Mark 7:6-9) bolster this, positing Scripture alone as self-attesting, contra extra-biblical dogmas like papal infallibility.

3. Similarities and Differences in the Accusations 

  • Similarities: Both hinge on “petitio principii”, assuming the conclusion in the premise—Scripture proving Scripture, or Church/Tradition proving Church/Tradition—lacking external validation. 

   • Differences in Defenses: Protestants defend “sola Scriptura” as non-circular via Scripture’s divine self-authentication (internal coherence, prophecies, Spirit’s witness). Catholics/Orthodox retort that their appeal is historical and pneumatic, rooted in Christ’s ecclesial promises (Matthew 16:18), verified through tradition and continuity. Protestants counter that “sola Scriptura” depends on tradition for canonization, yet presuppositions determine circularity perceptions—Orthodox framing it as divine relationality, Protestants as inherent scriptural authority.

This debate underscores profound epistemological rifts: authority in written revelation (Protestant) versus Spirit-guided community (Catholic/Orthodox). Having examined these mutual critiques, we now elucidate the nuanced Reformed articulation of “sola Scriptura”, which integrates subordinate authorities while preserving scriptural supremacy, thereby addressing misconceptions arising from the circularity discourse.

The Nuanced Doctrine of Sola Scriptura: Scripture’s Supremacy Amid Valued Ecclesiastical Witnesses

Within the Reformed theological heritage, “sola Scriptura” constitutes a pivotal epistemological pillar, affirming Holy Scripture as the singular infallible norm for faith and practice. Contrary to caricatures depicting it as simplistic biblicism that dismisses extrabiblical sources in an isolationist zeal, “sola Scriptura” embodies a refined hermeneutical paradigm that accords ministerial value to church councils, ecumenical creeds, scholarly exegetes, and patristic traditions, all of which are subordinated to the interpretive enterprise. This exposition outlines how Reformed theology, as enshrined in confessional documents such as the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) and the Belgic Confession (1561), incorporates these secondary authorities while unequivocally asserting the Bible—God’s inspired, inerrant Word—as the “norma normans non normata”.

The prevalent distortion of “sola Scriptura” as a “Bible-only” fallacy, confining theology to unmediated individualism, misapprehends its historical and doctrinal contours. Emerging from the Reformation’s contention against the Roman Catholic parity of unwritten traditions and magisterial edicts with Scripture (as per Trent, Session IV), “sola Scriptura” maintains that divine revelation culminates in canonical texts, which are Spirit-inspired (2 Tim. 3:16–17; 2 Pet. 1:20–21). The Belgic Confession (Article 7) proclaims: “We believe that those Holy Scriptures fully contain the will of God, and that whatsoever man ought to believe unto salvation is sufficiently taught therein,” affirming sufficiency sans negation of ancillary utility. This subordinates tradition: customs, councils, or statutes hold no parity with divine truth. Reformed luminaries like John Calvin (“Institutes” I.7–9) and William Perkins envision symbiosis wherein Scripture’s perspicuity on salvific essentials (Westminster I.7) is illumined by communal wisdom, yet never overshadowed.

Integral to this is the Reformed esteem for ecumenical councils and creeds as scriptural witnesses. Decrees from Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451) are honored for their fidelity to biblical doctrine and their rejection of heresy. Perkins classifies creeds as “ecclesiastical writings” that derive their authority from Scripture, serving as immutable bulwarks of faith unless biblically contravened. The Lutheran Book of Concord (1580) positions apostolic writings as “norma normans”, subordinating patristic texts as “norma normata”. Westminster (I.10) designates Scripture the supreme judge, yet permits conciliar recourse if aligned. Heresy is scripturally defined, councils providing corrigible guardrails.

Scholarly commentators and Fathers enrich interpretation under Scripture’s aegis. Hermann Sasse warns against fatherless churches becoming sects; Luther commends the reading of patristic literature as a Spirit-led practice among brethren. In Reformed praxis, tradition ministers: Augustine aids exegesis, tested against Scripture’s objective meaning via Spirit-illumined private judgment. “Private interpretation” entails reasoned, tradition-informed discernment of Scripture’s objective voice, with the church’s teaching office guarding anarchy yet remaining reformable (Westminster XXXI.3).

In essence, “sola Scriptura” transcends isolated biblicism through hierarchical authority, as subordinates illuminate Scripture within the context of the covenant community. Yet, Scripture remains paramount, binding consciences and reforming the church “semper reformanda”, safeguarding against accretions while honoring Spirit-led witnesses for apostolic fidelity.

This nuanced exposition of “sola Scriptura” sets the stage for examining the epistemological defense of this doctrine by Presbyterian theologian Gordon H. Clark, which addresses Roman and Orthodox criticisms through a Scripturalist framework, thereby further bridging the epistemological discussions that have heretofore been lacking.

Gordon H. Clark’s Defense of Sola Scriptura and Responses to Criticisms

Gordon H. Clark (1902–1985), a Reformed theologian and philosopher, developed a rigorous epistemological framework known as Scripturalism to reinforce Christianity against skepticism and competing philosophies. His argument addresses the core question of whether knowledge is possible, asserting that coherent systems require an unprovable axiom to avoid infinite regress or circular reasoning. Clark examines non-Christian axioms, such as empiricism, and finds that they lead to inconsistencies; in contrast, he advocates for the Bible as God’s inspired Word, serving as the Christian axiom from which knowledge logically proceeds. This supports the doctrine of “sola Scriptura” as the foundation of the Reformed tradition.

The Necessity of Axioms in Every System

No system proves all; an indemonstrable origin is requisite. “Any system… must begin somewhere.” Geometry axiomatizes lines; empiricism assumes sensory reliability, yet Clark deems this skeptical, as sensations yield no certain propositions—truth being consistent, eternal, and mental. Induction begs questions; coherence tests validity. Non-Christian axioms falter; Christianity’s self-consistency prevails.

Scripturalism: The Christian Axiom and Deduction of Knowledge

Scripturalism holds “the Bible alone is the inspired… Word of God, with a monopoly on truth.” Knowledge is propositional, scriptural, or deduced therefrom. Deduction via logic (embedded in Scripture) yields doctrines. The Spirit illuminates assent. Sensory data stimulates but provides no knowledge; coherence supplants correspondence.

Validation of Sola Scriptura

Scripturalism upholds sola Scriptura’s self-authentication: Scriptures are undeducible from superiors, per Calvin. Westminster affirms that authority depends on God. Alternatives like Catholicism introduce inconsistencies; apologetics expose the incoherence of rivals.

Criticisms from Roman Catholic Theologians

Catholics critique Scripturalism as extreme “sola Scriptura”, isolating Scripture from magisterium and tradition.

• Arbitrary axiom, begging questions; canon requires Church. 

• Denies oral tradition (2 Thess. 2:15); incomplete faith. 

• Fosters fragmentation; contrasts with magisterium. 

• Over-rationalistic, rejecting mystery.

Criticisms from Eastern Orthodox Theologians

Orthodox view it as a Western innovation, divorcing Scripture from tradition.

• Subordinates Scripture to tradition; historically unfounded. 

• Neglects theosis, experiential knowledge. 

• Rationalistic, risking heresy. 

• Ecclesiological deficiency.

Rebuttals by Reformed Theologians and Philosophers

Defenders like Robbins and Douma affirm the Reformed consistency of Scripturalism. 

• Axiom self-authenticating, superior in coherence. 

• Tradition subordinate; the Bible warns against human additions. 

• Avoids skepticism; fragmentation from rejection, not embrace. 

• Preserves transcendence; critiques contradictions in rivals.

Clark’s framework thus equips Reformed theology against critiques, transitioning now to rebuttals of straw man misrepresentations by Catholic and Orthodox apologists, which often distort Reformed positions amid these epistemological debates.

Rebuttals to Common Straw Man Misrepresentations of Reformed Theology

By Roman Catholic Apologetics

Roman critiques frequently caricature Reformed tenets; below, five are addressed via confessional standards.

1. Sola Scriptura as Radical Individualism: Overlooks magisterial-ministerial distinction; interpretation communal, tradition subordinated (Westminster I.10).

2. Sola Fide as Antinomian License: Justification forensic, yet linked to sanctification; works evidential (Calvin, “Institutes” III.16.1).

3. Predestination as Arbitrary Tyranny: Compatibilist; election merciful, reprobation permissive (Canons of Dort I.7).

4. Lord’s Supper as Mere Memorialism: Affirms spiritual presence pneumatically (Calvin, “Institutes” IV.17.10).

5. Ecclesiology as Invisible Anarchy: Affirms visibility via marks; succession doctrinal (Belgic 27).

These misrepresentations distort Reformed coherence; charitable dialogue acknowledges shared roots.

By Eastern Orthodox Apologetics

Orthodox caricatures similarly oversimplify; rebuttals engage patristic sources.

1. Sola Scriptura as Bibliolatry: Distinguishes supremacy from ministerial tradition (Westminster I.2–10).

2. Predestination as Fatalistic Determinism: Compatibilist; divine primacy (Canons of Dort I.6–7).

3. Justification by Faith Alone as Antinomian: Links to sanctification; rejects theosis blurring (Calvin, “Institutes” III.16.1).

4. Iconoclasm as Denial of Incarnation: Prohibits per Second Commandment; Christ’s ultimate image (Heidelberg Q.96–98).

5. Ecclesiology as Invisible Anarchy: Visible marks; succession doctrinal (Belgic 29).

Constructive interchange probes core divergences while honoring Fathers.

Having refuted these distortions, the charge that Protestantism engendered modern divisions will be addressed, examining it from Catholic and Orthodox perspectives to underscore Reformed views on unity.

Answering Charges of Division in Modern Christianity

From Roman Catholicism

The Reformation, under divine providence, reclaimed gospel purity from corruption. Charges of division misconstrue unity as institutional, not spiritual (Eph. 4:4–6). Corruption necessitated reform (Calvin, “Necessity”); unity, doctrinal, not papal. Protestant divisions stem from sin, not principles; Rome’s unity is illusory amid schisms.

From Eastern Orthodoxy

Divisions predate the Reformation (the 1054 Schism); the Orthodox Church exhibits fractures. Unity scriptural, not institutional (1 Cor. 4:6). Reformation recovered apostolic purity; charges invert causality. Vision: ecumenism in Scripture.

This response to division charges naturally leads to examining schisms within Catholicism and Orthodoxy, highlighting mutual vulnerability, and concluding with efforts at reconciliation.

Schisms in Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, and Ecumenical Reconciliation

Schisms in Roman Catholicism

1. Great Schism (1054): Separation from East over primacy, “filioque”. 

2. Western Schism (1378–1417): Rival popes; resolved at Constance. 

3. Old Catholic Schism (1870–present): Rejection of infallibility; Union of Utrecht.

Schisms in Eastern Orthodoxy

1. Great Schism (1054): As above. 

2. Old Believers (1666–1667): Liturgical reforms; persist independently. 

3. Bulgarian Exarchate (1870–1945): Nationalism; resolved. 

4. ROCOR (1920s–2007): Political; largely reconciled.

Reconciliation Efforts

Catholic-Lutheran dialogues culminated in JDDJ (1999), affirming justification consensus, lifting anathemas. Catholic recognizes Protestant baptisms if Trinitarian. Catholic-Orthodox dialogues progress on baptism, but less on justification due to differences.

The above article was Groked under the direction of Jack Kettler and perfected using Grammarly AI.

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Mr. Kettler, an author who has published works in Chalcedon Report and Contra Mundum, is an active RPCNA member in Westminster, CO, with 20 books defending the Reformed Faith avail

The Problem of Evil: A Reformed Theological Response to Theodicy
Jack Kettler

Abstract

This study addresses the theological challenge of theodicy, which seeks to reconcile the existence of evil with the sovereignty, holiness, and benevolence of God. Through exegesis of biblical texts where God employs evil spirits or calamity to fulfill His purposes (Judges 9:23; 1 Samuel 16:14; 1 Kings 22:20–23; Isaiah 45:7; Amos 3:6), the study argues that God’s sovereign decrees encompass both good and evil, serving His glory without compromising His sinless perfections. Drawing on Reformed theology, particularly Gordon H. Clark’s compatibilist framework, the study critiques the Arminian free will defense and engages with contemporary theodicies, such as Plantinga’s Free Will Defense and Hick’s Soul-Making Theodicy. Linguistic analysis of key Hebrew terms and a nuanced discussion of God’s decretive and preceptive wills strengthen the argument. This work offers a robust Reformed perspective, affirming that divine sovereignty resolves the theodicy question without recourse to human autonomy.

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Introduction

The problem of evil, or theodicy, remains a central issue in Christian theology: how can a holy, omnipotent, and benevolent God coexist with evil? This study examines biblical passages where God appears to orchestrate evil spirits or calamity to accomplish His purposes, asking how these texts inform our understanding of evil’s origin and God’s sovereignty. Rooted in the Reformed tradition, the analysis draws on Scripture, historical confessions, and the philosophical theology of Gordon H. Clark to argue that God’s sovereign ordination of all events, including evil, aligns with His sinless perfections. By incorporating linguistic analysis, engaging with contemporary theodicies, and clarifying the distinction between God’s decretive and preceptive wills, this study addresses previous critiques and contributes to scholarly discourse on theodicy while glorifying God through fidelity to His Word.

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Definition and Scope of Theodicy

Theodicy, from the Greek theos (God) and dikē (justice), seeks to vindicate God’s goodness and justice in the presence of evil. The issue is acute in light of God’s sovereignty, as affirmed in Proverbs 16:4 (“The LORD works out everything for his own ends—even the wicked for a day of disaster”) and Isaiah 45:7 (“I form the light and create darkness, I bring prosperity and create disaster; I, the LORD, do all these things”). Scripture does not provide a systematic defense of God’s actions but offers sufficient revelation to address the question. This study focuses on biblical texts suggesting divine involvement in evil, critiques the free will defense, engages with alternative theodicies, and proposes a Reformed solution grounded in divine sovereignty and the distinction between remote and proximate causation.

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Biblical Evidence and Exegesis

Several Old Testament passages attribute evil spirits or calamity to divine action, raising questions about God’s relationship to evil. Linguistic and contextual analysis clarifies their theological implications.

• Judges 9:23
  “Then God sent an evil spirit between Abimelech and the men of Shechem; and the men of Shechem dealt treacherously with Abimelech.” The Hebrew rûaḥ rā‘â (“evil spirit”) likely denotes a spiritual being, possibly Satan, acting under divine permission (cf. Job 1:12). The verb šālaḥ (“sent”) suggests active divine agency, yet John Gill notes that God commissioned this spirit to stir discord, not as the proximate cause of sin but as the ultimate cause within His sovereign plan (Gill, Exposition, 145). This illustrates God’s decretive will, ordaining events without moral culpability.

• 1 Samuel 16:14
  “But the Spirit of the LORD departed from Saul, and an evil spirit from the LORD troubled him.” The phrase rûaḥ rā‘â mē’ēt YHWH (“evil spirit from the LORD”) and the verb bā‘at (“troubled”) indicate psychological distress, not moral corruption. Jamieson-Fausset-Brown attributes Saul’s melancholy to divine withdrawal, with the evil spirit as a secondary agent (Commentary, 217). This parallels Job, where God permits Satan’s actions within His sovereign constraints.

• 1 Kings 22:20–23
  This passage depicts a heavenly council where a spirit volunteers to be a “lying spirit” (rûaḥ šeqer) in Ahab’s prophets, with God’s approval. The context highlights Ahab’s prior rebellion (1 Kings 21:25), and Gill interprets this as a judicial act, permitting deception to fulfill God’s decree (Gill, Exposition, 291). The text underscores God’s sovereignty over deceptive agents, akin to Job 1:6–12.

• Isaiah 45:7
  “I form the light and create darkness, I bring prosperity and create disaster; I, the LORD, do all these things.” The Hebrew rā‘ (“disaster” or “evil”) denotes calamity, not moral evil, as evidenced by its parallel with šālôm (“prosperity”) and its use in contexts of divine judgment (e.g., Amos 3:6). The verb bārā’ (“create”) echoes Genesis 1:1, affirming God’s sovereignty over all creation. Jamieson-Fausset-Brown clarifies that rā‘ refers to calamity, countering dualistic interpretations (Commentary, 567–568).

• Amos 3:6
  “Shall there be evil in a city, and the LORD hath not done it?” Here, rā‘â refers to calamity (e.g., famine, war), as Matthew Poole notes (Poole, Commentary, 905). Albert Barnes distinguishes this from moral evil, emphasizing God’s role in punishment (Barnes, Notes, 520). The rhetorical question affirms divine causation without implying moral authorship.

These texts collectively demonstrate that God, as the ultimate cause, ordains events involving evil spirits or calamity, yet remains distinct from proximate causes (human or demonic agents). The Reformed distinction between God’s decretive will (ordaining all events) and preceptive will (commanding righteousness) is critical, as articulated in the Westminster Confession (3.1): God ordains whatsoever comes to pass, yet “neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures.”

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Theological Synthesis: A Reformed Solution

Drawing on Gordon H. Clark’s compatibilist framework, this study argues that divine sovereignty resolves the theodicy question without invoking libertarian free will. Clark’s solution comprises four elements:

• Free Agency vs. Free Will
  Clark rejects libertarian free will, which posits choices free from any determining factor, and affirms free agency, where human volitions are free from natural compulsion but subject to God’s decree (Clark, Religion, Reason and Revelation, 227). Acts 4:27–28 exemplifies this, where Herod and Pilate act voluntarily yet fulfill God’s plan.

• God as Ultimate Cause
  Clark asserts, “God is the sole ultimate cause of everything,” including sin, yet not its author (Clark, Religion, 237–238). Proximate causes (e.g., human agents) bear moral responsibility, as in Job 1:17, where the Chaldeans are culpable, yet Job attributes ultimate causation to God (Job 1:21).

• Responsibility from Divine Sanction
  Human responsibility stems from God’s authority to judge, not the ability to do otherwise (Clark, Religion, 231). Romans 9:22–23 illustrates this, displaying God’s justice and mercy through vessels of wrath and mercy.

• Divine Justice by Definition
  Clark argues that “whatever God does is just” because righteousness is intrinsic to God’s nature (Clark, Religion, 241). Romans 9:20 rebukes human judgment of God, affirming His aseity.

Charles Hodge complements this, arguing that evil manifests God’s justice and grace, serving His glory (Hodge, Systematic Theology, 1:435). John Calvin clarifies that God’s will is the “necessity of things,” yet human agents act voluntarily (Calvin, Institutes, III.xxiii.8). The crucifixion (Acts 2:23) exemplifies this, where divine ordination and human sin converge for redemption. Louis Berkhof’s distinction between God’s decretive and preceptive wills further clarifies that God ordains evil events without endorsing sin, preserving His holiness (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 105–106).

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Engagement with Contemporary Theodicies

To strengthen the argument, this study engages with two prominent contemporary theodicies: Alvin Plantinga’s Free Will Defense and John Hick’s Soul-Making Theodicy.

• Plantinga’s Free Will Defense
  Plantinga argues that God creates beings with significant moral freedom, making evil a possible consequence of their choices (Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil, 30). While philosophically rigorous, this defense assumes libertarian free will, which Clark critiques as incompatible with divine omniscience. If God foreknows all events, human choices are inevitable, undermining libertarian freedom (Clark, Religion, 217–219). Moreover, Scripture prioritizes divine sovereignty over human autonomy (e.g., Ephesians 1:11), rendering Plantinga’s defense theologically inadequate within a Reformed framework.

• Hick’s Soul-Making Theodicy
  Hick posits that evil is necessary for spiritual growth, enabling humans to develop virtues in a challenging world (Hick, Evil and the God of Love, 253). While pastorally appealing, this view subordinates divine glory to human development, contrary to Romans 11:36, which centers all things on God’s purposes. Additionally, Hick’s reliance on free will faces the same critiques as Plantinga’s, and his universalist leanings conflict with Reformed soteriology.

In contrast, the Reformed approach prioritizes divine sovereignty and scriptural authority, avoiding the anthropocentrism of these theodicies. The distinction between remote and proximate causation (e.g., Job 1:21; Acts 2:23) provides a biblically grounded alternative, affirming God’s justice without invoking human autonomy.

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Critique of the Free Will Defense

The Arminian free will defense posits that evil results from human choices independent of divine causation, absolving God of responsibility. However, as Clark argues, divine foreknowledge renders human choices inevitable, negating libertarian freedom (Clark, Religion, 217–219). If God created the world knowing evil would result, He remains the remote cause, as Antony Flew observes (God and Philosophy, 78). The concept of divine permission is also incoherent, as nothing is independent of an omnipotent God (Acts 17:28). Clark’s lifeguard analogy illustrates this: a lifeguard who permits a drowning is culpable if he has the power to intervene; similarly, God’s permission of evil implies control, not neutrality (Clark, God and Evil, 17–18). Open theism, which denies divine omniscience, contradicts Scripture (Psalm 139:16) and fails to resolve the issue. Thus, the free will defense is theologically and philosophically inadequate.

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Apologetic Considerations

For non-believers, the problem of evil often serves as a critique of theism. However, atheistic worldviews lack a coherent basis for defining good and evil, reducing morality to subjective conventions (Van Til, The Defense of the Faith, 65). The Reformed approach invites non-believers to consider the biblical worldview, where evil serves God’s redemptive purposes (Genesis 50:20). While maintaining theological rigor, this study adopts an irenic tone, acknowledging the emotional weight of suffering while pointing to God’s sovereignty as a source of hope (Romans 8:28).

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Conclusion

This study affirms that God’s sovereign decrees, encompassing both good and evil, resolve the theodicy question within a Reformed framework. Biblical texts (Judges 9:23; 1 Samuel 16:14; 1 Kings 22:20–23; Isaiah 45:7; Amos 3:6) demonstrate God’s ultimate causation, with linguistic analysis clarifying that rā‘ often denotes calamity, not moral evil. Gordon H. Clark’s compatibilist framework, supported by Calvin, Hodge, and Berkhof, upholds divine justice and human responsibility without invoking libertarian free will. Engagement with Plantinga and Hick highlights the superiority of the Reformed approach, while the distinction between God’s decretive and preceptive wills clarifies His sinless ordination of evil. For believers, this perspective calls for submission to divine revelation; for non-believers, it offers a coherent worldview. As the Westminster Confession (3.1) declares, God ordains all things, yet remains untainted by sin, establishing the liberty of secondary causes for His glory.

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Recommendations for Further Research

• The pastoral implications of divine sovereignty in counseling those suffering from evil.

• A comparative analysis of Reformed and Thomistic approaches to theodicy.

• The role of eschatology in resolving the theodicy question, particularly the ultimate defeat of evil (Revelation 21:4).

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References

• Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.

• Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill, translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960.

• Clark, Gordon H. God and Evil: The Problem Solved. Hobbs, NM: Trinity Foundation, 1996.

• Clark, Gordon H. Religion, Reason and Revelation. Jefferson, MD: Trinity Foundation, 1995.

• Flew, Antony. God and Philosophy. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005.

• Gill, John. Exposition of the Old and New Testaments. Grace Works, 2011.

• Hick, John. Evil and the God of Love. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

• Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997.

• Jamieson, Robert, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown. Commentary on the Whole Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1977.

• Plantinga, Alvin. God, Freedom, and Evil. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974.

• Poole, Matthew. Commentary on the Holy Bible. Vol. 2. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1985.
• Van Til, Cornelius. The Defense of the Faith. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2008.

• Westminster Assembly. Westminster Confession of Faith. 1646.

• Biblical citations from the English Standard Version (ESV).

Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy

Book Review: Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy: Texts Translated from the Latin. Edited and Translated by Victor Genke and Francis X. Gumerlock. Medieval Philosophical Texts in Translation 47. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2010. Pp. 247. ISBN: 9780874622539.

The publication of Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy: Texts Translated from the Latin, edited and translated by Victor Genke and Francis X. Gumerlock, represents a landmark contribution to the study of medieval theology, particularly the contentious debates surrounding predestination in the Carolingian era. This meticulously crafted volume, published as part of the esteemed Medieval Philosophical Texts in Translation series by Marquette University Press, offers the first comprehensive English translation of the key theological writings of Gottschalk of Orbais (c. 808–868), alongside responses from his contemporaries. The work not only illuminates a pivotal yet often overlooked figure in the history of Christian doctrine but also provides an invaluable resource for scholars of medieval intellectual history, theology, and the legacy of Augustinian thought. This review will evaluate the volume’s scholarly significance, its editorial and translational rigor, and its broader contributions to the field.

Scholarly Significance

Gottschalk of Orbais, a Saxon monk and theologian, is a figure whose influence on the theology of predestination has long been overshadowed by later reformers such as John Calvin. Yet, as Genke and Gumerlock persuasively demonstrate, Gottschalk’s advocacy for a doctrine of double predestination—wherein God sovereignly ordains some to salvation and others to damnation—anticipates key elements of later Reformed theology while remaining firmly rooted in his interpretation of Augustine of Hippo. The ninth-century Carolingian Renaissance, a period marked by theological and cultural renewal, provided the backdrop for Gottschalk’s controversial teachings, which sparked heated debates and led to his condemnation as a heretic at the Synods of Mainz (848) and Quierzy (849). The significance of this volume lies in its ability to bring Gottschalk’s voice, previously accessible primarily through Latin texts or the writings of his detractors, to an English-speaking audience for the first time.

The book’s introduction, authored by Victor Genke, is a masterful synthesis of historical and theological context. Spanning 63 pages, it provides a detailed biography of Gottschalk, tracing his life from his early years at the monastery of Fulda to his travels across Europe and eventual imprisonment at Hautvillers. Genke deftly situates Gottschalk within the broader intellectual currents of the Carolingian era, highlighting the resurgence of Augustinian theology and the tensions it provoked among theologians wary of its implications for free will and pastoral care. The introduction also engages with the historiographical challenges of studying Gottschalk, acknowledging the biases of his opponents, such as Hincmar of Reims, while critically assessing the monk’s own writings. This nuanced approach ensures that readers approach the primary texts with a clear understanding of the stakes involved in the predestination controversy.

Editorial and Translational Rigor

The core of the volume consists of English translations of Gottschalk’s theological writings, including his Reply to Rabanus Maurus, Confession of Faith at Mainz, Tome to Gislemar, Shorter Confession, Longer Confession, Answers to Various Questions, On Predestination, On Different Ways of Speaking About Redemption, and Another Treatise on Predestination. These texts are complemented by selected writings from Gottschalk’s contemporaries, including three letters by Rabanus Maurus, five by Hincmar of Reims, and works by Amolo and Florus of Lyons. The inclusion of these oppositional texts is a particular strength, as it allows readers to appreciate the dialogical nature of the controversy and the diversity of theological perspectives in the ninth century.

The translations, a collaborative effort by Genke and Gumerlock, are exemplary in their fidelity to the original Latin and their readability in English. The translators have navigated the complexities of Gottschalk’s dense, scripturally saturated prose with remarkable skill, preserving the theological precision and rhetorical flourishes of the original texts. For example, Gottschalk’s insistence on the simultaneity of divine foreknowledge and foreordination—a key aspect of his doctrine—is rendered with clarity, allowing readers to grasp the subtlety of his argument (e.g., “the omnipotent and immutable God has gratuitously foreknown and predestined the holy angels and elect human beings to eternal life, and … he equally predestined the devil himself … to rightly eternal death” [p. 54]). The translators’ decision to include extensive footnotes, drawing on the editorial work of Cyrille Lambot and others, further enhances the volume’s scholarly value. These notes clarify textual variants, provide references to scriptural and patristic sources, and address interpretive challenges, such as the debated reading of osculum versus oculum in Gottschalk’s citation of Augustine (p. 95).

One minor critique, noted by some reviewers, is the occasional repetition of uncorroborated anecdotes about Gottschalk’s life, derived from his adversaries, without sufficient critical commentary. While this does not detract significantly from the volume’s overall quality, greater skepticism toward such sources could have strengthened the introduction’s historical analysis. Additionally, the translators’ reliance on older editions, such as the Patrologia Latina, for some citations could have been supplemented with references to more recent Corpus Christianorum editions. However, these are minor quibbles in light of the volume’s overall rigor and accessibility.

Contributions to the Field

The publication of Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy fills a critical gap in the study of medieval theology. Prior to this volume, much of what was known about Gottschalk came from the polemical writings of his opponents or from limited access to his Latin texts, edited by Cyrille Lambot in 1945. By providing English translations of Gottschalk’s complete theological corpus, Genke and Gumerlock have made his thought accessible to a broader audience, including scholars and students who may lack proficiency in Latin. This accessibility is particularly valuable for those studying the history of predestination, as Gottschalk’s doctrine of double predestination, limited atonement, and the sovereignty of divine grace prefigures the theological debates of the Protestant Reformation.

The volume also contributes to ongoing discussions about the reception of Augustine in the medieval period. Gottschalk’s reliance on the later, more deterministic writings of Augustine, as opposed to the more balanced conclusions of the Council of Orange (529), underscores the complexity of Augustinianism in the Carolingian era. The translated texts reveal Gottschalk’s extensive use of scripture and patristic sources, particularly Augustine and Fulgentius of Ruspe, to argue for a theology that emphasizes God’s omnipotence over human free will. By including responses from figures like Hincmar and Rabanus Maurus, who advocated a more moderate view of grace and free will, the volume highlights the diversity of theological positions within the Carolingian church and invites further research into the interplay of doctrine and ecclesiastical politics.

Moreover, the book’s relevance extends beyond theology to the study of Carolingian culture and intellectual history. Gottschalk’s condemnation and imprisonment reflect the broader tensions between individual theological innovation and institutional authority in the ninth century. The volume’s introduction speculates intriguingly on Gottschalk’s possible influence in Croatia, where he may have been associated with a church in Nin, suggesting avenues for future research into the geographical scope of his impact. This interdisciplinary appeal makes the book an essential resource for historians, theologians, and medievalists alike.

Broader Impact and Recommendations

Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy is an indispensable resource for scholars and students of medieval theology, offering a window into a pivotal moment in the history of Christian doctrine. Its clear translations, comprehensive introduction, and inclusion of oppositional texts make it an ideal text for graduate seminars on medieval intellectual history, the history of theology, or the Carolingian Renaissance. The volume also holds value for those interested in the historical development of predestination, as it bridges the gap between Augustine and the Reformation, positioning Gottschalk as a “German Calvin” avant la lettre.

The book’s publication has already sparked renewed interest in Gottschalk, as evidenced by its positive reception in journals such as Augustinian Studies and The Medieval Review. Future research could build on this foundation by exploring Gottschalk’s influence on later medieval theologians, such as Thomas Bradwardine, or by examining the codicological evidence for the transmission of his texts. Additionally, the volume’s emphasis on Gottschalk’s scriptural exegesis invites further study of his hermeneutical methods and their relationship to Carolingian biblical scholarship.

In conclusion, Victor Genke and Francis X. Gumerlock have produced a work of exceptional scholarly merit that not only resurrects the voice of a misunderstood medieval theologian but also enriches our understanding of the complex interplay of doctrine, authority, and intellectual culture in the Carolingian era. Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy is a triumph of translation and scholarship, deserving of a wide readership among those committed to the study of Christian theology and medieval history. It stands as a testament to the enduring relevance of Gottschalk’s thought and the vibrancy of ninth-century theological discourse.

Citation: Genke, Victor, and Francis X. Gumerlock, eds. and trans. Gottschalk and a Medieval Predestination Controversy: Texts Translated from the Latin. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2010.

Contact Francis X. Gumerlock at for information on Books and Articles on the Theology of Grace and Eschatology at https://francisgumerlock.com/ Dr. Gumerlock is an expert in early Church eschatology and historical theology.

The above article was Groked under the direction of Jack Kettler and perfected using Grammarly AI.

“Study to show thyself approved unto God” (2 Timothy 2:15).

Mr. Kettler, an author who has published works in the Chalcedon Report and Contra Mundum, is an active member of the RPCNA in Westminster, CO, and has written 18 books defending the Reformed Faith available on Amazon.