The Identity of the “Gods” in Psalm 82:1: A Classical Exegesis in Dialogue with Michael S. Heiser’s Divine Council Hypothesis

The Identity of the “Gods” in Psalm 82:1: A Classical Exegesis in Dialogue with Michael S. Heiser’s Divine Council Hypothesis

Jack Kettler

Abstract

Psalm 82:1 presents a theological conundrum with its reference to “gods” (elohim) in the context of divine judgment. This paper examines the identity of these “gods” through a classical exegetical lens, engaging with Michael S. Heiser’s divine council hypothesis, which posits that the term refers to supernatural beings within a heavenly assembly. Drawing on historical-critical exegesis, New Testament commentary, and theological tradition, this study argues that the “gods” are best understood as human judges, divinely appointed representatives of God’s authority. This interpretation is grounded in the authoritative witness of Jesus in John 10:34 and supported by Old Testament monotheism, which precludes the existence of subordinate deities. The paper critiques Heiser’s hypothesis as innovative but hermeneutically problematic, emphasizing the primacy of New Testament revelation in interpreting Old Testament texts.

Introduction

Psalm 82:1, attributed to Asaph, declares, “God stands in the congregation of the mighty; he judges among the gods” (elohim). This enigmatic verse has sparked considerable debate regarding the identity of the “gods.” Traditional exegesis has often identified them as human judges, while Michael S. Heiser’s divine council hypothesis argues for a supernatural interpretation, positing a heavenly assembly of divine beings. This paper seeks to evaluate these interpretations, prioritizing a classical hermeneutical approach informed by New Testament revelation and theological tradition. While acknowledging Heiser’s contribution to the discussion, this study contends that the “gods” of Psalm 82:1 are human authorities, a view consistent with biblical monotheism and Christ’s exegesis in John 10:34.

Exegetical Analysis of Psalm 82:1

The Hebrew term elohim, typically translated “God” or “gods,” is contextually nuanced. In Psalm 82:1, elohim appears twice: first, referring to God (Yahweh), and second, to the “gods” within the “congregation of the mighty” (adat el). Keil and Delitzsch’s Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament provides a foundational interpretation, asserting that the “congregation” is the assembly of Israel, God’s covenant people (cf. Num 27:17; Ps 74:2). The “gods” are human judges, divinely appointed to administer justice as God’s representatives. This view aligns with Exodus 21:6 and 22:8, where elohim denotes judges, a rendering reflected in the Septuagint’s to kriterion tou theou (“the judgment seat of God”) and the Targum’s dayyana (“judges”).

The psalm depicts God standing in judgment over these human authorities, censuring their unjust rulings (Ps 82:2–4). The Niphal participle nitsav (“stands”) conveys God’s solemn, authoritative presence, underscoring His sovereignty over those who bear His delegated authority. Keil and Delitzsch note that since Genesis 9:6, God has entrusted judicial authority to humanity, particularly within Israel’s theocratic framework, where judges reflect God’s image as elohim (Keil & Delitzsch, 1985, p. 402). This interpretation emphasizes the functional, not ontological, use of elohim, designating human agents of divine justice.

Engagement with Heiser’s Divine Council Hypothesis

Michael S. Heiser, an Old Testament scholar, proposes that the “gods” of Psalm 82:1 are supernatural beings within a divine council, a heavenly assembly presiding over cosmic and earthly affairs. Drawing on ancient Near Eastern parallels, such as the Ugaritic pantheon, Heiser argues that elohim in Psalm 82 refers to divine entities subordinate to Yahweh, tasked with administering His will (Heiser, 2015). This hypothesis posits that Psalm 82 reflects a worldview where Yahweh presides over a council of lesser deities, a concept Heiser extends to other texts (e.g., Deut 32:8–9; Job 1:6).

While Heiser’s approach highlights the cultural milieu of the Hebrew Bible, it faces significant challenges. First, it assumes a continuity between Israelite and Canaanite cosmologies that the Old Testament explicitly rejects (e.g., Isa 43:10; 45:18). Second, it struggles to reconcile the plural elohim with Israel’s uncompromising monotheism, which denies the existence of other gods (Deut 4:35). Third, Heiser’s reliance on extrabiblical texts risks prioritizing comparative religion over canonical exegesis, potentially obscuring the unique theological claims of Scripture.

New Testament Commentary: John 10:34

The decisive interpretive key lies in Jesus’ citation of Psalm 82:6 in John 10:34: “Is it not written in your law, ‘I said, you are gods’?” Here, Jesus defends His claim to divinity by appealing to the “gods” of Psalm 82, whom He identifies as human recipients of God’s word, likely judges or leaders. The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary clarifies that these “gods” are “official representatives and commissioned agents of God” (Jamieson et al., 1977, p. 437). This interpretation aligns with the classical view, as Jesus employs elohim to denote human authorities, not divine beings.

Jesus’ exegesis carries normative weight, as the New Testament completes and interprets the Old Testament (2 Tim 3:16–17). By framing Psalm 82:6 as part of “your law,” Jesus situates the psalm within the Torah’s judicial context, where elohim consistently refers to judges (Exod 21:6). This undermines Heiser’s divine council hypothesis, as Jesus’ authoritative commentary precludes a supernatural interpretation.

Theological Implications and Monotheistic Consistency

The classical interpretation upholds biblical monotheism, avoiding the theological tensions inherent in Heiser’s hypothesis. Isaiah 43:10 and 45:18 emphatically declare Yahweh’s uniqueness: “Before me no god was formed, nor shall there be any after me.” These texts preclude the existence of subordinate deities, rendering the divine council theory incompatible with Old Testament theology. Similarly, Isaiah 40:13 and Romans 11:34 affirm God’s sole sovereignty, negating the need for a divine council to counsel Him (Barnes, 1997, p. 2292; Vincent, n.d., p. 132).

Heiser’s hypothesis, while innovative, risks introducing equivocation into the biblical text. If elohim in Psalm 82 denotes divine beings, it contradicts Isaiah’s monotheistic assertions, undermining the coherence of Scripture. The classical view, conversely, maintains theological consistency by interpreting elohim as a functional title for human judges, preserving the unity of God’s self-revelation.

Historical Theological Perspectives

Heiser’s divine council hypothesis finds limited precedent in church history. Some early theologians, such as Origen, speculated about multiple divine beings, particularly in Trinitarian contexts (Origen, Commentary on John). However, Origen’s views do not align precisely with Heiser’s, as they focus on distinctions within the Godhead rather than a council of lesser gods. Other figures, like Aphrahat and Eusebius, entertained similar ideas, but these remained marginal and never achieved doctrinal consensus. Mainstream Christian exegesis, from Augustine to Calvin, consistently identified the “gods” of Psalm 82 as human judges, reflecting the influence of Jesus’ interpretation in John 10:34.

Heiser’s hypothesis, as a relatively novel interpretation, bears the burden of overturning two millennia of theological consensus. While novelty does not inherently discredit a theory, it demands robust evidence, particularly when challenging established exegesis. Heiser’s reliance on ancient Near Eastern parallels, while scholarly, risks prioritizing cultural context over canonical authority, a methodological flaw that undermines his claims.

Hermeneutical Considerations

The hermeneutical principle guiding this study is the primacy of New Testament revelation in interpreting the Old Testament. As the Westminster Confession of Faith (1.9) states, “The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture itself.” The New Testament, as the fulfillment of Old Testament revelation, provides authoritative commentary on texts like Psalm 82. Heiser’s approach, conversely, appears to privilege obscure Old Testament passages and extrabiblical sources, potentially inverting this hermeneutical priority. This methodological reversal risks distorting the biblical narrative, casting the Old Testament as a “cosmic game of thrones” rather than a unified testimony to God’s sovereignty.

Conclusion

The “gods” of Psalm 82:1 are best understood as human judges, divinely appointed to administer justice within Israel’s theocratic framework. This interpretation, rooted in classical exegesis and affirmed by Jesus in John 10:34, upholds biblical monotheism and theological coherence. While Michael S. Heiser’s divine council hypothesis offers a provocative alternative, it falters under scrutiny, lacking sufficient canonical support and introducing tensions with Old Testament monotheism. The New Testament’s interpretive authority remains paramount, guiding readers to a faithful understanding of Psalm 82 and its place within the biblical canon. Future studies should continue to engage Heiser’s work critically, ensuring that exegesis remains anchored in the unified witness of Scripture.

References

• Barnes, A. (1997). Barnes’ Notes on the Bible: Romans. The Ages Digital Library.

• Heiser, M. S. (2015). The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible. Lexham Press.

• Jamieson, R., Fausset, A. R., & Brown, D. (1977). Commentary on the Whole Bible. Zondervan.

• Keil, C. F., & Delitzsch, F. (1985). Commentary on the Old Testament: Psalms. William B. Eerdmans.

• Kirkpatrick, A. F. (Ed.). (1898). Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges: Psalms. Cambridge University Press.

• Vincent, M. R. (n.d.). Word Studies in the New Testament. Macdonald Publishing.

Declaration

“For transparency, I acknowledge the use of Grok, an AI tool developed by xAI, and Grammarly AI for editorial assistance in drafting, organizing, and refining this manuscript’s clarity and grammar. All theological arguments, exegesis, and interpretations are my own, and I take full responsibility for the content.” – Jack Kettler